Sarcoptic mange is a widely distributed disease, with numerous potential hosts among domestic and wild animals. Nowadays it is considered a neglected re-emergent infection in humans. As a difference with domestic pigs, and even with several clinical cases reported in some European countries, it seems that Eurasian wild boars (Sus scrofa) have a low susceptibility to clinical mange. However, because of a case of confirmed transmission from Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) to wild boar in the province of Tarragona, we planned a large-scale ELISA survey in the neighboring Valencian Community (SE Spain). We compared 419 wild boar sera from different management systems (fenced vs. open game estates), different ages (piglets, juveniles, and adults), with different behaviour (gregarious females of all ages and male piglets vs. solitary juveniles and adult males), from areas with different wild boar densities, different wild ruminant densities and different sarcoptic mange epidemiologic situations. The whole prevalence of antibodies against sarcoptic mange in the tested wild boars was 10.5%. No significant differences were found when comparing fenced and free ranging wild boars, males and females, gregarious vs. solitary individuals or among different ages. However, wild boar density was a relevant factor. In areas with a hunting bag of <1 wild boar/km2, considered as a low density of suids, the seroprevalence was 2.94%, but rose to 11.52% in high density districts, constituting a significant difference (p = 0.037). Low wild boar populations would act as a protective factor (OR 0.233; p = 0.049) against coming into contact with the mite. The wild ruminant densities or their sarcoptic mange status did not show any effect on wild boars seroprevalence against this disease. These results reinforce the suggested host-taxon Sarcoptes scabiei specificity and the independence of host-species foci.

Wild animals, sharing pathogens with domestic animals, play a crucial role in the epidemiology of infectious diseases. Sampling from wild animals poses significant challenges, yet it is vital for inclusion in disease surveillance and monitoring programmes. Often, mass surveillance involves serological screenings using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests, typically validated only for domestic animals. This study assessed the diagnostic specificity of commercially available ELISA tests on 342 wild ruminant serum samples and 100 from wild boars. We evaluated three tests for foot-and-mouth disease: two for Peste des petits ruminants, two for Rift Valley fever and one for Capripox virus. Diagnostic specificity was calculated using the formula True Negative/(False Positive + True Negative). Cohen\'s kappa coefficient measured agreement between tests. Results showed high specificity and agreement across all tests. Specificity for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) ranged from 93.89% for Prionics to 100% for IDEXX, with IDvet showing 99.6%. The highest agreement was between FMD IDvet and IDEXX at 97.1%. Rift Valley fever (RVF) tests, Ingezim and IDvet, achieved specificities of 100% and 98.83%, respectively. The optimal specificity was attained by retesting single reactors and inactivating the complement.Contribution: Commercially available ELISA kits are specific for foot-and-mouth disease and similar transboundary animal diseases and can be used for highly specific wild animal testing.

UNASSIGNED: Wildlife represents an increasingly important source of pathogens of medical and veterinary importance. Surveillance in wildlife offers an insight on current epidemiological status of selected pathogens and help to prevent spillovers to humans and livestock.
UNASSIGNED: Our study included 312 wild ruminants belonging to five species: Roe deer (n = 134), red deer (n = 113), Alpine chamois (n = 53), European mouflon (n = 10) and Alpine ibex (n = 2). Seven pathogens that may have profound effect on human/livestock health and economic viability of the farms were tested using serological methods.
UNASSIGNED: Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Coxiella burnetii, Brucella spp., Chlamydophila abortus, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) and Mycobacterium bovis were detected in 34.62% (108/312), 0.96% (3/312), 2.24% (7/312), 0, 0.96% (3/312), 0, 0.64% (2/312) of animals tested, respectively. Because of low prevalences, risk factors were assessed only for T. gondii. Sex (female>male) and species (roe deer>red deer, roe deer>Alpine chamois) were significantly associated with the T. gondii positive outcome, while age was not.
UNASSIGNED: Adult males had the lowest T. gondii prevalence which offers future research opportunities. The lower seroprevalence of most investigated pathogens suggests game meat, if properly cooked, as being relatively safe for human consumption. This is the first study investigating the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of selected pathogens in wild ruminants in Slovenia.

Small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) are widespread and infect goats and sheep. Several reports also suggest that SRLVs can infect wild ruminants. The presence of specific antibodies against SRLVs has been identified in wild ruminants from Poland, but no studies have been conducted to detect proviral DNA of SRLVs in these animals. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine samples from Polish wild ruminants to determine whether these animals can serve as reservoirs of SRLVs under natural conditions. A total of 314 samples were tested from red deer (n = 255), roe deer (n = 52) and fallow deer (n = 7) using nested real-time PCR. DNA from positive real-time PCR samples was subsequently used to amplify a CA fragment (625 bp) of the gag gene, a 1.2 kb fragment of the pol gene and an LTR-gag fragment. Three samples (0.95%) were positive according to nested real-time PCR using primers and probe specific for CAEV (SRLV group B). All the samples were negative for the primers and probe specific for MVV (SRLV A group). Only SRLV LTR-gag sequences were obtained from two red deer. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these sequences were more closely related to CAEV than to MVV. Our results revealed that deer can carry SRLV proviral sequences and therefore may play a role in the epidemiology of SRLVs. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing SRLV sequences from red deer.

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is an arthropod-borne virus that emerged recently in northwestern Europe in 2011 that affects domestic and wild ruminants and induces abortion, stillbirth, and newborns with congenital anomalies. Since its discovery, SBV has spread very rapidly to too many countries in the world. The overall serological investigation of SBV is needed to improve modeling predictions and assess the overall impact on ruminant animals, which helps to design interventions for control and prevention strategies. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the overall serological assay of SBV in both domestic and wild ruminants around the world. This systematic review was conducted as per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. International databases were employed To search for relevant articles. The pooled prevalence with a 95% confidence interval was calculated with a random effects model. The Cochran\'s Q test, τ2, and I2 were used to assess the sources of heterogeneity. In the current meta-analysis, a total of 41 articles were included. The overall pooled proportion of SBV in domestic and wild ruminants was 49 and 26%, respectively. Substantial heterogeneity was observed in studies on domestic ruminants (I2 = 99.7%; p < 0.01) and studies on wild ruminants (I2 = 97.9%; p < 0.01). The pooled prevalence of SBV was significantly associated with publication time, detection techniques, and species of animals. According to the subgroup analysis, the highest pooled prevalence of SBV was reported in cattle (59%), followed by sheep (37%) and goat (18%). In addition to the subgroup analysis based on publication year, the pooled prevalence of SBV infection has become endemic since 2013 (49%) among domestic animals in the world. Of the diagnostic tests used, the highest anti-SBV antibodies (66%) were detected by a virus neutralization test. In this meta-analysis, the major wild animals that were infected by SBV were red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, mouflon, and wild boar. The highest sub-pooled prevalence of SBV was found in roe deer (46%), followed by fallow deer (30%), red deer (27%), mouflon (22%), and wild boar (11%). In general, the prevalence of SBV was high in cattle among domestic ruminants and in roe deer among wild animals. According to the current information provided by this meta-analysis, evidence-based risk management measures should be established to restrict SBV spread in both domestic and wild ruminants.

Fascioloidosis is a parasitic disease of primary wild and domestic ruminants, caused by giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna. The definitive host of the liver fluke in its area of origin (North America) is the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). In Europe, the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and European fallow deer (Dama dama) are definitive hosts and the most sensitive hosts to F. magna infection, on which the parasite exerts serious pathogenic effects. In this study, we analyzed fecal samples and livers of 72 D. dama from 11 hunting grounds in Arad County, Romania. Of the 72 fecal samples and livers from D. dama, trematodes of the genus Fascioloides were identified in four (5.56%). Sequencing revealed that the trematodes identified in the samples were similar to the sequence of F. magna (GenBank no. EF534992.1, DQ683545.1, KU232369.1). The sequence obtained from the molecular analysis has been deposited in GenBank® under accession number OQ689976.1. This study describes the first report of giant liver fluke (F. magna) infection in D. dama in Romania.

Among gastrointestinal nematodes, Haemonchus contortus (Rudolphi) Cobb (order Strongylidae; family Trichostrongylidae) is one of pathogenic and economic importance in domestic and wild ruminants, including the European bison, Bison bonasus Linnaeus (order Cetartiodactyla; family Bovidae); a species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature\'s Red List of Threatened Species. Carabus granulatus Linnaeus (order Coleoptera; family Carabidae) is one of the most prevalent species of ground beetle, inhabiting a wide range of terrestrial ecosystems in Poland. Twenty-six ground beetles of this species inhabiting the Białowieża Primeval Forest in eastern Poland were screened for the presence of DNA of pathogenic gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants. Extracted DNA was sequenced and compared to reference sequences. In six insects, the presence of H. contortus DNA was detected. The obtained nucleotide sequences were homologous to each other and to the majority of the published DNA sequences of H. contortus isolates. The sequences were also identical to a sequence of H. contortus isolated from European bison in Poland. The study provides the first molecular evidence of the presence of H. contortus DNA in C. granulatus. The finding suggests that ground beetles may play a role in the transmission dynamics of this parasite.

This review summarizes published records on the prevalence, species diversity, geographical distribution, mixed infections, co-infections with other trematodes and intermediate hosts (IHs) of amphistomes (rumen flukes) of wild ruminants in Africa. Literature search was conducted on Google Scholar, PubMed and JSTOR, using a combination of predetermined search terms and Boolean operators. Of the 54 African countries searched, results showed that occurrence of amphistome infections in wild ruminants have only been reported in 23 countries. A total of 38 amphistome species consisting of the following 11 genera were recorded, viz Bilatorchis, Calicophoron, Carmyerius, Choerecotyloides, Cotylophoron, Explanatum, Gastrothylax, Gigantocotyle, Leiperocotyle, Paramphistomum and Stephanopharynx. These were recorded in 39 wild ruminant species, belonging to the Bovidae family. The genus Carmyerius recorded the highest number of species (n = 13) across nine countries Africa. However, Calicophoron species (n = 9) were more widely distributed, occurring in 17 countries across all regions of Africa. Species of this genus collectively infected 27 wild ruminant species. However, at a species level, Cotylophoron cotylophorum infected the highest number of wild ruminant species. Prevalence of infection based on post-mortem examination ranged from 1.89% in African Buffalo to 100% in Defassa waterbuck from Egypt and Zambia, respectively. The most common mixed infections recorded were those between amphistomes of the same or different genus. Snail intermediate hosts (IHs) were described for 10/38 amphistome species, and these were predominantly species from Plarnobidae family. Despite the richness in diversity of amphistomes infecting wild ruminants in Africa, there is need to further confirm identity of snail IHs and the amphistome species using both morphological and molecular techniques. Furthermore, more studies are recommended to assess the burden of amphistomosis in commercially reared wildlife/game farming, mixed game and livestock farming systems in Africa.

UNASSIGNED: The family Mycobacteriaceae contains over 188 species, most of which are saprophytic non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). In wildlife, a variety of different NTM can be found, with different reports about their pathogenic potential. A pathogenic member of NTM is Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP), which can infect farmed and wild ruminants. It causes paratuberculosis which is an economically important chronic disease. Infected farm animals are considered to be the source of infection in wild animals. Wildlife, on the other hand, is thought to be a reservoir for certain members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), such as M. caprae, which causes tuberculosis in cattle and red deer.
UNASSIGNED: Switzerland implemented a surveillance program for tuberculosis in wild animals in 2014. Here, we describe the results from the mycobacterial culture of lymph node samples collected from red deer, roe deer, chamois, ibex, and badgers collected within this surveillance program from 2020 to 2022. Overall, samples from 548 animals were checked macroscopically for tuberculosis-like lesions.
UNASSIGNED: In total, 88 animals (16.1%), which either had lesions in their lymph nodes or were male and aged older than 5 years, were investigated using mycobacterial culture. In total, 25 animals (28.4%) were positive for NTM, while no MTBC was detected. The most often identified NTM was M. vaccae, followed by M. avium. Most animals positive for NTM did not show any macroscopic lesions. Furthermore, MAP was isolated from the head lymph nodes of two male red deer. Neither of the two MAP-positive animals had any macroscopic lesions in their head lymph nodes or any other signs of disease.
UNASSIGNED: The shooting sites of the two MAP-positive animals were located in Alpine pastures used for grazing of cattle during summer, which confirms that species transmission can occur when contaminated pastures are used by different species. In agreement with other studies, the occurrence of MAP in red deer was quite low. However, so far, MAP was mostly isolated from feces and intestinal lymph nodes of wild animals. This is the first detection of MAP in the head lymph nodes of red deer in Switzerland.

Helminth infection was analysed at necropsy and coprology in a total of 54 roe deer from the province of Grosseto (central Italy) between 2018 - 2020. Age and sex data were recorded for each deer for a total of 31 adults (23 females, 8 males) and 23 juveniles (11 females, 12 males). The results on the small intestine (51 samples) highlighted that nematodes belonging to the species Trichostrongylus colubriformis were the most prevalent parasite (41.2 %), followed by the cestode Moniezia expansa (7.8 %). The large intestine results (52 samples) showed Trichuris spp. (53.8 %), Oesophagostomum venulosum (50 %) and Chabertia ovina (26.9 %). In the abomasum, only Ostertagia ostertagi (17.9 %) was found. Of the 34 samples analysed by bronchopulmonary, only the lung of an adult female was positive for Dictyocaulus spp. In two livers out of 33 samples analysed, nematodes of the species Setaria tundra were found on the surface. Copropositivity was observed in 45 of the 52 faecal samples analysed. The results of the present study indicate that the roe deer is host to several species of parasites, which are also common in other cervids and domestic ruminants. Statistical testing highlighted a significant difference between mean intensities in males and females.