The phenomenon of lithic miniaturization during the Late Pleistocene at times coincided with increased artifact standardization and cutting edge efficiency-likely reflecting the use of small, sharp artifacts as interchangeable inserts for composite cutting tools and hunting weapons. During Marine Isotope Stage 2, Upper Paleolithic toolmakers in northern East Asia specifically used pressure techniques to make small, highly standardized lithic artifacts called microblades. However, little is currently known about how microblades affected the cutting edge efficiency of the toolkits they were a part of. We applied three methods of analyzing cutting edge efficiency to two Upper Paleolithic assemblages recently excavated from Tolbor-17, Mongolia, that document the periods before and after the introduction of microblade technology to the Tolbor Valley. A model incorporating allometric relationships between blank cutting edge length and mass suggests no difference in efficiency between the two periods, while two more conventional approaches both indicate a significant increase. The potential for improved cutting edge efficiency is only observed when the microblade sample is artificially inflated via simulation. Our results highlight challenges related to detecting and interpreting archaeological differences in cutting edge efficiency at the assemblage level.

OBJECTIVE: Which theoretical and practical competences do the urologic case histories of the Hippocratic Corpus convey?
METHODS: The 431 Hippocratic case histories have been studied for reports and communication on diagnostic methods, treatment, and prognosis related to urologic diseases.
RESULTS: Within the seven books of the Hippocratic Epidemics, a total of 69 patients with urologic symptoms are described; in 21 cases the urologic disease is dominant. The leading clinical signs were urine discoloration and urinary sediment, polyuria, testicular swelling and pain, hematuria, stranguria, anuria, and renal pain, the most frequent diseases were nephritis and urolithiasis. Most patients were men in juvenile and adult age; 33 sick persons are named. The statements of patients regarding the course of their illness were often sparse. Diagnostic tests were restricted to inspection and palpation. Otherwise, treatment was confined to conservative measures. The dietary decisions for treatment of nephritis were differentiated but nonuniform.
CONCLUSIONS: The Hippocratic physician diagnosed and treated diseases of the urinary tract. Inflammatory conditions and traumatic lesions are described in detail. Highest priority was awarded to uroscopy. Nephritis was a widespread disorder und usually associated with other symptoms, above all fever. The urinary tract was often regarded as an indicator of physical and mental health. Conservative treatment measures dominate in the case reports.
UNASSIGNED: FRAGESTELLUNG: Welche theoretische und praktische Fachkompetenz vermitteln die urologischen Kasuistiken des Corpus Hippocraticum?
METHODS: Die 431 hippokratischen Kasuistiken wurden auf Berichte und Kommentare zu Diagnostik, Therapie und Prognose von urologischen Erkrankungen untersucht.
UNASSIGNED: In den 7 Büchern der hippokratischen „Epidemien“ werden insgesamt 69 Kranke mit urologischen Symptomen beschrieben; bei 21 ist die Erkrankung der Nieren und Harnwege das führende Leiden. Die wesentlichen Krankheitszeichen waren Verfärbung und Sedimentationen des Urins, Polyurie, Schwellung und Schmerzen der Hoden, Hämaturie, Strangurie, Anurie und Nierenschmerzen, die häufigsten Erkrankungen Nephritis und Urolithiasis. Die Mehrzahl der Patienten war männlichen Geschlechts und stand im Jugend- oder Erwachsenenalter; 33 von ihnen werden beim Namen genannt. Die Angaben der Patienten zum Verlauf der Erkrankung waren oft spärlich. Die Diagnostik konzentrierte sich auf Inspektion und Palpation. Bei der Therapie beschränkte man sich auf konservative Maßnahmen. Die diätetischen Entscheidungen zur Behandlung der Nephritis waren differenziert, aber nicht einheitlich.
UNASSIGNED: Der hippokratische Arzt hat Erkrankungen der Nieren und ableitenden Harnwege diagnostiziert und therapiert. Die Symptome und Läsionen werden detailreich beschrieben. Höchste Priorität wurde der Harnschau eingeräumt. Harnentleerungsstörungen waren eine Volkskrankheit und häufig mit anderen Symptomen, v. a. Fieber verbunden. Die Harnwege wurden vielfach als Indikatoren der körperlichen Gesundheit betrachtet. In den Fallberichten dominiert die konservative Therapie.

UNASSIGNED: The death of Socrates in 399 BCE is described in Plato\'s dialogue, the Phaedo, written an unknown time afterwards from accounts by others.
UNASSIGNED: Socrates\' death has almost always been attributed to his drinking an extract of poison hemlock, Conium maculatum, despite apparent discrepancies between the clinical features described in classical translations of the Phaedo and general clinical experience of poisoning with the toxic alkaloids it contains.
UNASSIGNED: Recent acute philological analysis of the original Greek text has resolved many of the discrepancies by showing that the terms used in the classical translations were misinterpretations of the clinical signs described. It is also likely that the unpleasant clinical effects, such as vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and muscle fasciculation commonly described in modern reports of poison hemlock poisoning, were not mentioned to present the death of Socrates in a way consistent with his philosophical ideals and those of his pupil Plato.
UNASSIGNED: Seen in this way, the death of Socrates can be accepted as a limited case report of Conium maculatum poisoning. Even after reaching that conclusion, intriguing scientific questions remain about the toxicity of the coniine alkaloids and the mechanisms of their effects.

The Cortijo Coracho archaeological site dates from the Late Antiquity period, from the 5th to the 8th century AD. During this period, a number of populations settled in the area (Germanic peoples until Visigothic rule, Byzantine until the arrival of the Arabs, etc.), each of them concentrating the historical characteristics in the Sub-Baetic that are currently known. The Cortijo Coracho archaeological site is currently located in the city of Lucena (Cordoba, Spain), found after the works on the A-45 motorway. The necropolis consists of 294 inhumations and the remains of a basilica, although after a series of surveys it is estimated that there are around 700 additional burials, which would make it the largest necropolis with ad sancti burials surrounding a martyrial basilica dating back to the 4th century AD. Among the burials, 397 subjects were recovered, which implies a large presence of shared and/or reused burials. These subjects were transferred to the city\'s museum, where they were examined, reorganised and classified. At this point, subjects of scientific interest were found, as is the case of subject 204, the topic of this article. This individual, described as an adult male, is an example of the living conditions of this period, since despite his injury on the left lower extremity, a double fracture aggravated by a chronic osteomyelitis infection, he continued to use that limb. This paper will give the details of that distinctive lesion and the possible hypotheses underlying it.

Disorders of sex development (DSDs) are very frequently encountered in ancient Greek mythology. One of the most striking types of DSD described in many myths is gender transformation wherein a female becomes a male or vice versa. Herein, we present via the marvelous myth of Poseidon and Caeneus a case of pubertal gender inversion. A medical interpretation of the myth whereby we attempt to form a diagnosis of this case of DSD is also presented.

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BACKGROUND: The case histories in the writings of the Greco-Roman physician Galen of Pergamum have so far been interpreted primarily in literary and sociohistoric terms. Analysis focused on the medical aspects is still incomplete.
OBJECTIVE: Which surgical competences do the Galenic case reports communicate?
METHODS: The 358 Galenic case histories were studied for anamnestic, diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic statements on surgical diseases.
RESULTS: In 38 case reports surgical disorders are presented. Most of the histories are found in the works On the composition of drugs according to kind (12), On the affected parts (5) and On anatomical procedures (3). Both individual persons, including many children and several women, and groups of patients are reported. The descriptions do not follow a fixed structure. The texts are governed by information on the anamnesis and catamnesis, the results of the physical examination and the description of the chosen intervention. The author has repeatedly combined the description of an individual case with theoretical remarks. The majority of the reports come from wound, visceral and thoracic surgery. The most common surgical diseases Galen encountered were soft tissue injuries of the extremities, traumatic thoracic and abdominal lesions, abscesses, peripheral nerve lesions, dislocations and tumors of the female breast. Gladiator wounds played an important role. In most cases, Galen was the attending physician. Second-hand medical histories are also told. Surgical interventions were regularly combined with conservative treatment methods, albeit in varying orders.
CONCLUSIONS: The case reports cover much of the spectrum of surgical diseases mentioned by Galen. The differential diagnostic and differential therapeutic reflections are the most original element in terms of content. The remarks on the choice of treatment show that to care for surgical diseases the physician of antiquity sometimes used subtle interventions on the chest and abdominal wall, on the extremities and on the vessels. The accompanying drug treatment is described in great detail.
UNASSIGNED: HINTERGRUND: Die Fallbeschreibungen im Opus des griechisch-römischen Arztes Galen von Pergamon sind bisher überwiegend unter literarischen und sozialhistorischen Gesichtspunkten untersucht worden. Die auf die medizinischen Aspekte fokussierte Analyse ist noch unvollständig.
UNASSIGNED: Welche Kompetenz bei der Erkennung und Behandlung chirurgischer Erkrankungen vermitteln die galenischen Kasuistiken?
METHODS: Die 358 galenischen Fallbeschreibungen wurden auf anamnestische, diagnostische, therapeutische und prognostische Aussagen zu chirurgischen Erkrankungen untersucht.
UNASSIGNED: In 38 Fallberichten sind chirurgische Erkrankungen thematisiert; die meisten Kasuistiken finden sich in den Schriften Über die Zusammensetzung der Heilmittel in der Gliederung nach Typen (12), Über die erkrankten Körperteile (5) und Praktische Anatomie (3). Es werden sowohl Einzelpersonen, darunter viele Kinder und mehrere Frauen, als auch Gruppen von Patienten beschrieben. Die Schilderungen folgen keinem festen Gliederungsschema. Die Texte werden von Angaben zu Ana- und Katamnese, den Ergebnissen der körperlichen Untersuchung und der Beschreibung der gewählten Intervention dominiert. Mehrfach hat der Autor die Fallbeschreibung mit theoretischen Ausführungen kombiniert. Die Mehrzahl der Berichte stammt aus der Wund‑, Viszeral- und Thoraxchirurgie. Die häufigsten chirurgischen Erkrankungen, mit denen sich Galen konfrontiert sah, waren tiefe Weichteilverletzungen der Extremitäten, Thorax- und Bauchtraumata, Abszesse, Läsionen peripherer Nerven. Luxationen und Tumoren der Mammae. Eine wichtige Rolle spielen Verletzungen von Gladiatoren. In den meisten Fällen ist Galen selbst der beobachtende und behandelnde Arzt; es werden aber auch Krankengeschichten aus zweiter Hand erzählt. Die operativen Maßnahmen wurden, wenn auch in wechselnder Reihenfolge, gewöhnlich mit konservativer Therapie kombiniert.
CONCLUSIONS: Die Fallberichte decken das Spektrum der von Galen beschriebenen chirurgischen Erkrankungen nahezu vollständig ab. Die differenzialdiagnostischen und differenzialtherapeutischen Erwägungen bilden das inhaltlich originellste Element. Die Ausführungen zur Wahl der Behandlung zeigen, dass der Arzt der Antike für die Versorgung von Patienten mit chirurgischen Erkrankungen zum Teil anspruchsvolle Eingriffe an der Brust- und Bauchwand, an den Extremitäten und an den Gefäßen durchgeführt hat. Die begleitende medikamentöse Behandlung wird detailreich beschrieben.

BACKGROUND: The case histories in the writings of Galen of Pergamum have so far been interpreted primarily in literary and socio-historic terms. The analysis focused on the medical aspects is still incomplete.
OBJECTIVE: Which neurological competences do the galenic case reports communicate?
METHODS: The 400 galenic case histories were studied for anamnestic, clinical, therapeutic, and prognostic statements on neurological and psychiatric diseases.
RESULTS: In about every tenth case report, neurological and/or psychiatric disorders are discussed. Most of them are found in the works Anatomical procedures, On the affected parts and Method of Healing. Both individual patients and patient groups are reported. The author calls prominent patients by name. The descriptions do not follow a fixed structure. The texts are governed by information on the anamnesis and catamnesis and the results of the physical examination. The author has repeatedly combined the description of the individual cases with theoretical remarks. The most common diseases of the nervous system Galen encountered were traumatic palsy, paresthesia, incontinence, rabies, epilepsy, depression and insanity. Symptoms associated with fever and epidemics also played an important role. In most cases, Galen was the attending physician. Secondhand medical histories are also told. The most invasive treatment procedure was trepanation.
CONCLUSIONS: The case reports cover much of the spectrum of diseases of the nervous system mentioned by Galen. The doctor-patient tales are the most ingenious element in terms of style and content. The often sparse statements on the choice of treatment show that the ancient doctor hardly had any specific measures available for patients suffering from neurologic diseases with the exception of the rarely indicated and practiced surgical interventions.
UNASSIGNED: HINTERGRUND: Die Fallbeschreibungen im Werk des Galen von Pergamon sind bisher vorwiegend literarisch und sozialgeschichtlich interpretiert worden. Die auf die medizinischen Aspekte fokussierte Analyse ist noch unvollständig.
UNASSIGNED: Welche neurologische Kompetenz vermitteln die galenischen Kasuistiken?
METHODS: Die 400 galenischen Kasuistiken wurden auf anamnestische, klinische, therapeutische und prognostische Aussagen zu neurologischen und psychiatrischen Erkrankungen geprüft.
UNASSIGNED: In etwa jedem 10. Fallbericht sind neurologische und/oder psychiatrische Erkrankungen thematisiert; die meisten finden sich in den Schriften De anatomicis administrationibus, De locis affectis und De methodo medendi. Es werden sowohl einzelne Patienten als auch Patientengruppen beschrieben; prominente Kranke nennt der Autor beim Namen. Die Schilderungen folgen keinem festen Gliederungsschema. Die Texte werden von Angaben zu Ana- und Katamnese und den Ergebnissen der körperlichen Untersuchung dominiert. Mehrfach hat der Autor die Kombination der Fallbeschreibung mit theoretischen Ausführungen gewählt. Die häufigsten Erkrankungen des Nervensystems, mit denen sich Galen konfrontiert sah, waren traumatische Lähmungen, Sensibilitätsstörungen, Inkontinenz, Tollwut, Epilepsie, Depression und Wahnsinn. Eine wichtige Rolle spielen auch fieber- und seuchenassoziierte neurologische und psychiatrische Symptome. In den meisten Fällen war Galen selbst der behandelnde Arzt; es werden aber auch Krankengeschichten aus zweiter Hand erzählt. Das invasivste Behandlungsverfahren war die Trepanation.
CONCLUSIONS: Die Fallberichte decken das Spektrum der von Galen beschriebenen Erkrankungen des Nervensystems zum großen Teil ab. Die Arzt-Patienten-Gespräche bilden ihr inhaltlich wie stilistisch originellstes Element. Die vielfach spärlichen Ausführungen zur Wahl der Therapie zeigen, dass dem Arzt der Antike für Patienten mit neurologischen Erkrankungen mit Ausnahme der selten indizierten und praktizierten operativen Eingriffe kaum spezifische Maßnahmen zur Verfügung standen.

Palaeopathological evidence of cancer, especially metastatic cancer, is rare in China. This paper describes and diagnoses a cranium with multiple lytic lesions recovered from the Sampula cemetery in Xinjiang, attempting to diagnose the type of disease that could have caused the pathological lesions observed.
A cranium from an adult male (#00106) was recovered from the Sampula cemetery (dated to 55 BCE to 335 CE) located in the Luopu County, the Hotan River oasis on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang.
The cranium was assessed macroscopically and radiographically (CT).
Multiple osteolytic lesions with irregular and \"moth-eaten\" margins were detected in cranium #00106. CT scans revealed the development of the lesions began at the diploe and identified a \"button sequestrum\".
Based on lesion characteristics, metastatic carcinoma was likely the cause of lesions found in cranium #00106.
This case has expanded our knowledge of the malignant neoplasms of ancient populations in northwest China and discusses the possible risk factors in the occurrence of cancer in the Sampula site, as well as the possible impacts of skeletal metastases on the individual.
The distribution of osteolytic lesions over the complete skeleton cannot be observed because of the unavailability of postcranial bone.
With the increasing number of reports describing diseases in ancient China, the patterns of diseases occurrence and development can be further explored from spatial and temporal perspectives.