Since Russell and Burch introduced and defined the 3Rs, i.e., the replacement, reduction, and refinement of animal use in research, in 1959, different definitions have emerged and been implemented in guidelines and policies. Switzerland is known for having some of the most restrictive legislation regarding the use of animals, in which the 3Rs are also defined and implemented. To our knowledge, the purpose and definitions of the 3Rs used in the Swiss Animal Welfare Act, Animal Protection Ordinance, and Animal Experimentation Ordinance have never been compared with Russell and Burch’s original purpose and definitions. In this paper we make this comparison with two aims: to reveal ethically relevant departures from the original purpose and definitions, and to provide an ethical evaluation of the current Swiss law regarding the 3Rs. In doing so, we first expose the similarity of purposes. We then identify one risky departure from the original definition of replacement in Swiss law, which shows a problematic focus on species. Finally, we address Swiss law’s failure to apply the 3Rs in the most effective way. With respect to this last point, we discuss the need for 3R conflict resolution, the timing of application of the 3Rs, problematic prioritizations and choices of convenience as well as a solution to apply the 3Rs more effectively using Russell and Burch’s concept of total sum of distress.

Substances of abuse have the potential to cause addiction, habituation or altered consciousness. Most of the research on these substances focuses on addiction, and is carried out through observational and clinical studies on humans, or experimental studies on animals. The transposition of the EU Directive 2010/63 into Italian law in 2014 (IT Law 2014/26) includes a ban on the use of animals for research on substances of abuse. Since then, in Italy, public debate has continued on the topic, while the application of the Article prohibiting animal research in this area has been postponed every couple of years. In the light of this debate, we briefly review a range of methodologies - including animal and non-animal, as well as patient or population-based studies - that have been employed to address the biochemical, neurobiological, toxicological, clinical and behavioural effects of substances of abuse and their dependency. We then discuss the implications of the Italian ban on the use of animals for such research, proposing concrete and evidence-based solutions to allow scientists to pursue high-quality basic and translational studies within the boundaries of the regulatory and legislative framework.

A human intervention trial was conducted to study amino acid uptake of the novel Lemna protein concentrate (LPC) in comparison to whey (WPC). The study was a cross-over, double-blind, controlled trial in which 12 healthy participants received 20 grams of LPC and WPC in randomised order. The LPC consumption resulted in a significant lower postprandial increase in almost all individual amino acids, total amino acid (TAA) and total essential amino acids (TEAA) compared to WPC based on area under the curve (AUC) calculations. When the AUC after WPC consumption was set at 100%, LPC showed a relative AUC of 60.4% for TAA and 66.3% for the TEAA. Interindividual variation for LPC was high with an uptake of TEAA of LPC compared to WPC ranging from 18.2 to 94.2%. Human intervention trials can partly replace animal trials as they fully reflect the human situation and provide estimates on individual variations.

This article investigates the barriers to implementing higher caging in animal research establishments in the UK. The use of animals in research and testing in the UK is regulated by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, which sets out how animal experiments must be licensed and regulated. Within this, the Code of Practice currently allows laboratory rats to be housed in cages that are 20 cm high, even though adults can rear up to 30 cm. Most adult rats therefore cannot stand upright in \'standard\' cages. We found that the main factors hindering the implementation of higher caging were classified into five different groups; health and safety, financial, animal welfare, scientific, and \'human\'. Suggestions to overcome these barriers are provided, as well as alternative animal welfare changes that can be put into place. We conclude that much of the desired evidence for moving to higher cages is already available, and therefore the focus should be on education and improving access to the existing evidence, in order to encourage facilities to work around existing financial and health and safety concerns.

Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) is considered to be one of the most serious environmental issues in the Philippines. The annual waste generation was estimated at 10.6 million tonnes in 2012 and this is expected to double in 2025. The Republic Act (RA) No. 9003, widely known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, provides the required policy framework, institutional mechanisms and mandate to the Local Government Units (LGUs) to achieve 25% waste reduction target through establishing an integrated solid waste management plan based on the 3Rs (reduce, reuse and recycling). Although the initial impact of the LGUs is still very limited in implementing the national mandate, this article highlights the successful experiences of Cebu, the second largest city in the Philippines, in reducing its MSW generation by more than 30% in the past three years. This study also explores the implementation process, innovative actions taken by the Cebu City Government in implementing the national mandate at local level and identifies the factors that influence the policy implementation. The findings suggest that the impacts of the national mandate can be achieved if the LGUs have the high degree of political commitment, planning and development of effective local strategies in a collaborative manner to meet with local conditions, partnership building with other stakeholders, capacity development, adequate financing and incentives, and in the close monitoring and evaluation of performance.