The objective of the present research was to develop chitosan-coated nanoliposomes using a modified heating method as a delivery system for simultaneous encapsulation of caffeine and roselle anthocyanin to fortify beverage. Response surface methodology was used to ascertain the optimized formulation, aiming to maximize the encapsulation efficiency, minimize the particle size, and maximize the zeta potential. The liposomes fabricated under the optimized conditions (lecithin to cholesterol ratio of 13 and wall to core ratio of 2.16) showed encapsulation efficiency values of 66.73 % for caffeine and 97.03 % for anthocyanin, with a size of 268.1 nm and a zeta potential of -39.11 mV. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the formation of hydrogen bonds between the polar sites of lecithin and the loaded core compounds. Thermal analysis suggested the successful encapsulation of the caffeine and anthocyanin. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy images confirmed a uniform spherical shape with a smooth surface. Fortifying the model beverage with the liposome and the chitosan-coated nanoliposome revealed higher values of encapsulation efficiency of anthocyanin (70.33 ± 3.11 %), caffeine (86.37 ± 2.17 %) and smaller size (280.5 ± 0.74 nm) of the chitosan-coated nanoliposomes at the end of 60the days. A hedonic sensory test of the fortified beverage with chitosan-coated nanoliposomes confirmed an improvement in the organoleptic properties of the beverage by masking its bitterness (receiving three more sensory scores in perceiving the bitterness intensity). Overall, our study indicates that the high potential of the chitosan-coated nanoliposomes for the simultaneous loading of the caffeine and anthocyanin, as well as their possible application in food and beverage formulations.

Dual-compartmental emulsions, containing multiple chambers, possess great advantages in co-encapsulation of different cargoes. Herein, we reported a stable dual-compartmental emulsion by regulating the ratio of Marsupenaeus japonicus ferritin (MF) and chitooligosaccharide (COS), enabling efficient co-encapsulation of different compounds. The adsorption behavior of MF/COS complex over droplet interface varied at different ratios, thereby exerting an influence on the emulsion properties. Remarkably, emulsions stabilized by MF/COS complex at a ratio of 2:1 exhibited superior stability, as evidenced by no significant creaming or demulsification during storage or heat treatment. The mechanism is that MF/COS2:1 complex can enhance the formation of thicker interfacial layer and dense continuous phase network structure. Additionally, curcumin and quercetin can be co-encapsulated into the emulsions and their retention rates were significantly improved than those in oils, implying the potential of the resulting dual-compartmental emulsions in co-encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds.

In this study, vitamins C and E were simultaneously encapsulated in water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion-filled sodium alginate (SA) hydrogel beads, as well as the effects of SA concentrations (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0%) on the structures and lipolysis the of hydrogel beads were investigated. With increasing SA concentration, the beads showed larger sizes, denser structures and better textures. The droplets tightly penetrated the gel network at high SA concentrations. Digestion behavior revealed the disintegrated intramolecular structure at low SA concentrations. The beads with 0.5% SA were fragmented, losing the initial shape during digestion in the intestinal fluid. Additionally, lipid phases were released as W/O/W and O/W emulsion droplets after digestion. However, the high SA concentration-containing beads exhibited a well-preserved morphological structure after digestion, and the release profiles of lipid phase were mainly O/W emulsion droplets. Furthermore, vitamins C and E encapsulated in the beads exhibited high bioaccessibility (vitamin C: 90.20% and vitamin E: 95.19%).

To enhance the bioavailability of bioactives with varying efficacy in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), a co-delivery system of solid-in-oil-in-water (S/O/W) emulsion was designed for the co-encapsulation of two bioactives in this paper. S/O/W emulsions were fabricated utilizing fucoxanthin (FUC)-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) as the solid phase, coconut oil containing curcumin (Cur) as the oil phase, and carboxymethyl starch (CMS)/propylene glycol alginate (PGA) complex as the aqueous phase. The high entrapment efficiency of Cur (82.3-91.3%) and FUC (96.0-96.1%) was found in the CMS/PGA complex-stabilized S/O/W emulsions. Encapsulation of Cur and FUC within S/O/W emulsions enhanced their UV and thermal stabilities. In addition, S/O/W emulsions prepared with CMS/PGA complexes displayed good stability. More importantly, the formed S/O/W emulsion possessed programmed sequential release characteristics, delivering Cur and FUC to the small intestine and colon, respectively. These results contributed to designing co-delivery systems for the programmed sequential release of two hydrophobic nutrients in the GIT.

Low bioavailability of phenolic compounds (phenolics) results in low in vivo bioactivity, thus their co-encapsulation could enhance potential health benefits. In this study, reconstitutable nanoliposomes loaded with phenolics varying in solubility were fabricated using spray drying after stabilized by chitosan (CH) or whey protein (WP). The physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, digestive fate, and bioactivity retention of phenolics in different forms were investigated. The surface charge of nanoliposomes (NL) shifted from -18.7 mV to positive due to conjugation with cationic CH (53.1 mV) and WP (14 mV) after spray drying while it was -26.6 mV for only spray-dried phenolics (SDP). Encapsulation efficiency of the tested phenolics ranged between 64.7 % and 95.1 %. Simulated gastrointestinal digestion/Caco-2 cell model was used to estimate the digestive fate of the phenolics yielding up to 3-fold higher bioaccessibility for encapsulated phenolics compared to their native form, combined or individually. However, the cellular uptake or transepithelial transport of phenolics did not differ significantly among formulations, except trans-resveratrol in WP-NL. On the contrary, the suppressive effect of phenolics on fatty acid induced hepatocellular lipid accumulation was strongly dependent on the encapsulation method, no activity was retained by SDP. These findings suggested that reconstitutable nanoliposomes can improve the absorption of phenolics by facilitating their bioaccessibility and thermal and/or processing stability during spray drying.

This study presents a novel approach to developing a probiotic butter spread product. We evaluated the prebiotic activity of soluble dietary fibers extracted from cranberry and sea buckthorn berry pomace with different probiotic strains (Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum), uploaded selected compatible combination in the bigel matrix, and applied it in the probiotic butter spread formulation. Bigels and products were characterized by physical stability, rheological, textural properties, and viability of probiotics during storage at different conditions. The highest prebiotic activity score was observed in soluble cranberry (1.214 ± 0.029) and sea buckthorn (1.035 ± 0.009) fibers when cultivated with L. reuteri. The bigels loaded with probiotics and prebiotic fiber exhibited a significant increase in viscosity (higher consistency coefficient 40-45 Pa·sn) and better probiotic viability (>6 log CFU/g) during long-term storage at +4 °C temperature, surpassing the bigels loaded with probiotics alone. Bigels stored at a lower temperature (-18 °C) maintained high bacterial viability (above 8.5 log CFU/g). The butter spread enriched with the bigel matrix was softer (7.6-14.2 N), indicating improved spreadability. The butter spread product consistently met the required 6 log CFU/g for a functional probiotic food product until 60 days of storage at +4 °C temperature. The butter stored at -18 °C remained probiotic throughout the entire storage period, confirming the protective effect of the bigel matrix. The study\'s results showed the potential of the bigel to co-encapsulate, protect, and deliver probiotics during prolonged storage under different conditions.

In this study, a novel one-step coaxial electrospinning process is employed to fabricate shell-core structure fibers choosing Chlorella pyrenoidosa proteins (CP) as the core material. These nanofibers, serving as the wall material for probiotic encapsulation, aimed to enhance the stability and antioxidant activity of probiotics in food processing, storage, and gastrointestinal environments under sensitive conditions. Morphological analysis was used to explore the beads-on-a-string morphology and core-shell structure of the electrospun fibers. Probiotics were successfully encapsulated within the fibers (7.97 log CFU/g), exhibiting a well-oriented structure along the distributed fibers. Compared to free probiotics and uniaxial fibers loaded with probiotics, encapsulation within microalgae proteins/alginate core-shell structure nanofibers significantly enhanced the probiotic cells\' tolerance to simulated gastrointestinal conditions (p < 0.05). Thermal analysis indicated that microalgae proteins/alginate core-shell structure nanofibers displayed superior thermal stability compared to uniaxial fibers. The introduction of CP resulted in a 50 % increase in the antioxidant capacity of probiotics-loaded microalgae proteins/alginate nanofibers compared to uniaxial alginate nanofibers, with minimal loss of viability (0.8 log CFU/g) after 28 days of storage at 4 °C. In summary, this dual-layer carrier holds immense potential in probiotic encapsulation and enhancing their resistance to harsh conditions.

The present study aimed to enhance the survivability of the encapsulated biocomposites of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum AB6-25 and Saccharomyces boulardii T8-3C within the gastrointestinal system (GIS) and during storage period. AB6-25 and T8-3C were individually co-encapsulated using either lactobionic acid (LBA) in Na-alginate (ALG)/demineralized whey powder (DWP) or solely potential probiotics in ALG microcapsules. Free probiotic cells were utilized as the control group. Both microcapsules and free cells underwent freeze-drying. The encapsulation and freeze-drying efficiency of core materials were evaluated. The protective effect of encapsulation on the probiotics was examined under simulated GIS conditions and during storage at either 25 °C or 4 °C. Additionally, the microcapsules underwent analysis using fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Encapsulation and freeze-drying processes were carried out efficiently in all groups (88.46 %-99.13 %). SEM revealed that the microcapsules possessed a spherical and homogeneous structure, with sizes ranging from 3 to 10 μm. ALG/DWP and LBA presence in the microcapsule structure was confirmed through FTIR, XRD analysis indicated the formation of a new composite. Over 180 days, all microcapsule groups stored at 4 °C maintained their therapeutic dosage viability. However, after four months, microcapsules stored at 25 °C exhibited a decline in yeast survivability below the therapeutic threshold. Experimental groups demonstrated better viability under simulated GIS conditions compared to the control. These findings suggest the potential use of microencapsulated probiotics as a food supplement and indicate that microcapsule groups containing AB6-25 and T8-3C stored at 4 °C can be preserved for six months.

One of the most frequent causes of respiratory infections are viruses. Viruses reaching the airways can be absorbed by the human body through the respiratory mucosa and mainly infect lung cells. Several viral infections are not yet curable, such as coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Furthermore, the side effect of synthetic antiviral drugs and reduced efficacy against resistant variants have reinforced the search for alternative and effective treatment options, such as plant-derived antiviral molecules. Curcumin (CUR) and quercetin (QUE) are two natural compounds that have been widely studied for their health benefits, such as antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity. However, poor oral bioavailability limits the clinical applications of these natural compounds. In this work, nanoemulsions (NE) co-encapsulating CUR and QUE designed for nasal administration were developed as promising prophylactic and therapeutic treatments for viral respiratory infections. The NEs were prepared by high-pressure homogenization combined with the phase inversion temperature technique and evaluated for their physical and chemical characteristics. In vitro assays were performed to evaluate the nanoemulsion retention into the porcine nasal mucosa. In addition, the CUR and QUE-loaded NE antiviral activity was tested against a murine β-COV, namely MHV-3. The results evidenced that CUR and QUE loaded NE had a particle size of 400 nm and retention in the porcine nasal mucosa. The antiviral activity of the NEs showed a percentage of inhibition of around 99 %, indicating that the developed NEs has interesting properties as a therapeutic and prophylactic treatment against viral respiratory infections.

An O1/W/O2 double emulsion gel, as a functional fat substitute and based on nanoemulsions and hydrophobic Pickering particles, is prepared by two-step emulsification to co-encapsulate hydrophilic cyanidin and hydrophobic quercetin. Nanoemulsions loading quercetin are fabricated by Tween-80 and combining high-speed and high-pressure emulsification. Phytosterol nanoparticles stabilize the W-O2 interface of the secondary emulsion to load cyanidin in the W phase. The concentration of Tween-80 is optimized as 0.3% by the droplet size and viscosity of nanoemulsions. The structural stability of double emulsion gels will be weakened along with the increase of nanoemulsions, showing lower modulus and encapsulation efficiency (EE) and bigger droplets. In double emulsion gels, the EE of quercetin and cyanidin reaches 93% and 85.6%, respectively. Analysis of molecular interaction indicates that Tween-80 would decrease the in-situ hydrophobicity of phytosterol nanoparticles by hydrogen bonding adsorption, thereby weakening the emulsification. The pH-chromic 3D printing of double emulsion gels is designed according to the pH sensitivity of cyanidin. Texture profile analysis is performed to test the textural properties of 3D-printed objects. The simulated digestion is conducted on double emulsion gels. The double emulsion gel with fewer nanoemulsions is beneficial for protecting quercetin and improving the delivery due to the higher structural stability, while that with more nanoemulsions is conducive to the digestion of cyanidin and camellia oil due to weakened semi-solid properties. This double emulsion gel further simulates fat tissues by co-encapsulating hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances, promoting the application of fat substitutes in the food industry.