BACKGROUND: Higher mean and rapid increases in body mass index (BMI) during infancy are associated with subsequent obesity and may be influenced by exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals such as phenols.
OBJECTIVE: In a prospective US-based cohort conducted 2010-2014, we investigated associations between environmental phenol exposures and BMI in 199 infants.
METHODS: We measured seven urinary phenols at ages 6-8 and 12 weeks and assessed BMI z-score at up to 12 study visits between birth and 36 weeks. We examined individual and joint associations of averaged early infancy phenols with level of BMI z-score using mean differences (β [95% confidence intervals (CI)]) and with BMI z-score trajectories using relative risk ratios (RR [95% CI]).
RESULTS: Benzophenone-3, methyl and propyl paraben, and all phenols jointly were positively associated with higher mean BMI z-score (0.07 [-0.05, 0.18], 0.10 [-0.08, 0.27], 0.08 [-0.09, 0.25], 0.17 [-0.08, 0.43], respectively). Relative to a Stable trajectory, benzophenone-3, 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,5-dichlorophenol, and all phenols jointly were positively associated with risk of a Rapid Increase trajectory (1.46 [0.89, 2.39], 1.33 [0.88, 2.01], 1.66 [1.03, 2.68], 1.41 [0.71, 2.84], respectively).
CONCLUSIONS: Early phenol exposure was associated with a higher mean and rapid increase in BMI z-score across infancy, signaling potential long-term cardiometabolic consequences of exposure.

UNASSIGNED: There is limited evidence on recent trends in childhood growth trajectories in Low-/middle-income countries. We investigated how age-trajectories for height and Body Mass Index (BMI) have changed among Brazilian children born in two different time periods after 2000.
UNASSIGNED: We used a population-based cohort (part of the \"Cohort of 100-Million Brazilians\") created by the linkage of three Brazilian administrative databases: the Cadastro Único of the Federal Government, the National System of Live Births and the National Nutritional and Food Surveillance System. We included longitudinal data on 5,750,214 children who were 3 to <10 years of age and born between 2001 and 2014 (20,209,133 observations). We applied fractional polynomial models with random-effects to estimate mean height and BMI trajectories for children.
UNASSIGNED: Compared to children born in 2001-2007, the cohort born in 2008-2014 were on average taller, by a z-score of 0.15 in boys and 0.12 in girls. Their height trajectories shifted upwards, by approximately 1 cm in both sexes. Levels of BMI increased little, by a z-score of 0.06 (boys) and 0.04 (girls). Mean BMI trajectories also changed little. However, the prevalence of overweight/obesity increased between cohorts, e.g., from 26.8% to 30% in boys and 23.9%-26.6% in girls aged between 5 and <10 years.
UNASSIGNED: An increase of 1 cm in mean height of Brazilian children during a short period indicates the improvement in maternal and child health, especially those from low-income families due to the new health and welfare policies in Brazil. Although mean BMI changed little, the prevalence of child overweight/obesity slightly increased and remained high.
UNASSIGNED: This work was supported by National Council for Scientific and Technological Development - CNPq; Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Great Ormond Street Hospital Biomedical Research Centre; Society for the Study of Human Biology; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais - FAPEMIG; Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia da Secretaria de Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovação e Complexo da Saúde do Ministério da Saúde - Decit/SECTICS/MS. The study also used resources from the Centre for Data and Knowledge Integration for Health (CIDACS), which receives funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, the Health Surveillance Secretariat of the Ministry of Health and the Secretariat of Science and Technology of the State of Bahia (SECTI-BA).

Human milk comprises large fat globules enveloped by a native phospholipid membrane, whereas infant formulas contain small, protein-coated lipid droplets. Previous experimental studies indicated that mimicking the architecture of human milk lipid droplets in infant milk formula (IMF) alters lipid metabolism with lasting beneficial impact on later metabolic health.
To evaluate in a follow-up (FU) study of a randomized, controlled trial whether a Concept IMF with large, milk phospholipid-coated lipid droplets enriched with dairy lipids beneficially impacts long-term body mass index (BMI in kg/m2) trajectories and blood pressure at school age.
Fully formula-fed infants were randomly assigned to Concept IMF (n = 115) or Control IMF with conventional, small lipid droplets containing vegetable oils (n = 108) for the first 4 mo of age. A group of 88 breastfed infants served as a reference. During FU, anthropometrics were collected at 1, 3, 4, and 5 y of age, and blood pressure only at the last visit.
Compared to Control, Concept group children had consistently lower mean BMI values during FU, with the most marked difference at 1 y of age (difference in means -0.71 kg/m2, 95% confidence interval (CI): -1.13, -0.29; P = 0.001); mean values were close to the breastfed group (P > 0.05). Contrary, the mean BMI values of the Control group were higher compared with the breastfed group during FU from 1 to 5 y of age (differences in means from 0.59 to 0.96 kg/m2, respectively; P < 0.02). At 5 y of age, the Concept group had a lower mean diastolic and arterial blood pressure compared with the Control group; -4.3mm Hg (95% CI: -7.3, -1.3; P = 0.005) and -3.7 mm Hg (95% CI: -6.5, -0.9; P = 0.01), respectively.
Early life feeding of an innovative IMF with large, milk phospholipid-coated lipid droplets enriched with dairy lipids results in a BMI trajectory closer to breastfed infants and a lower blood pressure at school age. This trial was registered at the Dutch Trial Register as NTR3683 and NTR5538.

The purpose of this study is to examine associations between maternal lipid profiles in pregnancy and offspring growth trajectories in a largely macrosomic cohort. This is a secondary analysis of the ROLO birth cohort (n = 293), which took place in the National Maternity Hospital, Dublin, Ireland. Infants were mostly macrosomic, with 55% having a birthweight > 4 kg. Maternal mean age was 32.4 years (SD 3.9 years), mean BMI was 26.1 kg/m2 (SD 4.4 kg/m2) and 48% of children born were males. Total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-cholesterol), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-cholesterol) and triglycerides were measured from fasting blood samples of mothers at 14 and 28 week gestation. The change in maternal lipid levels from early to late pregnancy was also examined. Offspring abdominal circumference and weight were measured at 20- and 34-week gestation, birth, 6 months, 2 years and 5 years postnatal. Linear spline multilevel models examined associations between maternal blood lipid profiles and offspring growth. We found some weak, significant associations between maternal blood lipids and trajectories of offspring growth. Significant findings were close to the null, providing limited evidence. For instance, 1 mmol/L increase in maternal triglycerides was associated with faster infant weight growth from 20- to 34-week gestation (0.01 kg/week, 95% CI - 0.02, - 0.001) and slower abdominal circumference from 2 to 5 years (0.01 cm/week, 95% CI - 0.02, - 0.001). These findings do not provide evidence of a clinically meaningful effect.    Conclusion: These findings raise questions about the efficacy of interventions targeting maternal blood lipid profiles in pregnancies at risk of macrosomia. New studies on this topic are needed. What is Known: • Maternal fat accumulation during early pregnancy may potentially support fetal growth in the third trimester by providing a reserve of lipids that are broken down and transferred to the infant across the placental barrier. • There are limited studies exploring the impact of maternal lipid profiles on infant and child health using growth trajectories spanning prenatal to postnatal life. What is New: • Maternal blood lipid profiles were not associated with offspring growth trajectories of weight and abdominal circumference during pregnancy up to 5 years of age in a largely macrosomic cohort, as significant findings were close to the null, providing limited evidence for a clinically meaningful relationship. • Strengths of this work include the use of infant growth trajectories that span prenatal to postnatal life and inclusion of analyses of the change of maternal lipid levels from early to late pregnancy and their associations with offspring growth trajectories from 20-week gestation to 5 years of age.

To investigate the associations between gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) metformin or insulin treatment and offspring growth trajectories from 0 to 60 months.
Participants were from the Born in Bradford birth cohort study. Using covariate-adjusted multilevel linear spline models (4 splines: 0-1.6, 1.6-6, 6-17 and 17-60 months), we compared weight, height and body mass index (BMI) z-score trajectories of: (1) 76 offspring exposed to metformin (OGDM-Metformin) and 420 offspring exposed to insulin (OGDM-Insulin); (2) OGDM-Metformin and 9171 offspring not exposed to GDM (No-GDM); (3) OGDM-Insulin and No-GDM.
(1) OGDM-Metformin had comparable growth trajectories to OGDM-Insulin from 0 to 60 months. (2) OGDM-Metformin had a lower mean birthweight z-score than No-GDM. OGDM-Metformin had faster changes in height z-score (0.13 [95% CI 0.026, 0.24]) from 17 to 60 months and by 60 months, had comparable mean BMI z-score to No-GDM. (3) OGDM-insulin had lower mean birthweight and height z-scores than No-GDM. OGDM-Insulin had faster changes in weight (0.32 [0.021, 0.62]) and height (0.50 [0.087, 0.91]) from 1.6 to 6 months and by 60 months, had comparable mean BMI z-score to No-GDM.
GDM metformin treatment was not associated with differences in offspring growth trajectories compared to insulin treatment. Both metformin and insulin-exposed offspring had comparable BMI z-score to No-GDM by 60 months.

Dietary micronutrient intakes of iron, folate and vitamin B12 are known to influence hemoglobin. Low maternal hemoglobin (maternal anemia) has been linked to low birthweight and other adverse health outcomes in the fetus and infant. Our primary aim was to explore relationships between maternal dietary micronutrient intakes, maternal full blood count (FBC) parameters and fetal abdominal circumference (AC) and estimated fetal weight (EFW) growth trajectories. Secondarily, we aimed to assess relationships between maternal dietary micronutrient intakes, maternal hemoglobin values and placental weight and birthweight.
Mother-child pairs (n = 759) recruited for the ROLO study were included in this analysis. Maternal dietary micronutrient intakes were calculated from food diaries completed during each trimester of pregnancy. FBC samples were collected at 13- and 28-weeks\' gestation. Fetal ultrasound measurements were recorded at 20- and 34-weeks\' gestation. Growth trajectories for AC and EFW were estimated using latent class trajectory mixture models.
Dietary intakes of iron and folate were deficient for all trimesters. Mean maternal hemoglobin levels were replete at 13- and 28-weeks\' gestation. Dietary iron, folate and vitamin B12 intakes showed no associations with fetal growth trajectories, placental weight or birthweight. Lower maternal hemoglobin concentrations at 28 weeks\' gestation were associated with faster rates of fetal growth and larger placental weights and birthweights.
The negative association between maternal hemoglobin at 28 weeks\' gestation and accelerated fetal and placental growth may be due to greater consumption of maternal iron and hemoglobin by fetuses\' on faster growth trajectories in addition to placental biochemical responses to lower oxygen states.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are environmentally persistent, potential metabolic disruptors of concern for infants. Mothers participating in the New Hampshire Birth Cohort Study (NHBCS) provided a plasma sample during pregnancy to measure concentrations of seven PFAS, and infant weight and length were abstracted from well-child visits between birth and 12 months. Sex-specific growth patterns of child body mass index (BMI) were fit using a growth mixture model (GMM) and the relative risk ratios (RRR) and 95% Confidence Intervals (95% CI) for the association of maternal plasma PFAS with BMI growth patterns during infancy were estimated by using multinomial logistic model for the group probabilities in the GMM. Four growth patterns were identified: Group 1) a steep increase in BMI during the first 6 months, then a leveling off; Group 2) a gradual increase in BMI across the year; Group 3) a steep increase in BMI during months 1-3, then stable BMI; and Group 4) a gradual increase in BMI with plateau around 3 months (reference group). For boys, higher maternal pregnancy perfluorooctanoate concentrations were associated with a 60% decreased chance of being in group 3 as compared to group 4, after adjusting for potential confounding variables (RRR = 0.4; 95% CI: 0.1, 0.9). For girls, higher maternal perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) concentrations during pregnancy were associated with a higher likelihood of following the growth pattern of groups 2 (RRR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.0, 6.1) and 3 (RRR = 2.8; 95% CI: 1.0, 7.6) as compared to group 4, adjusting for potential confounding variables. In this cohort, sex-specific associations of maternal plasma PFAS concentrations during pregnancy with growth patterns during the first year of life were observed, with greater BMI growth observed among infant girls born to mothers with higher pregnancy concentrations of PFOS.

To examine the association between maternal metabolic parameters in pregnancy and growth trajectories up to 5 years of age.
Data from mother-child pairs who participated in the ROLO study, a randomized trial examining the impact of a low glycaemic index diet on the recurrence of macrosomia, were analysed. Fetal and child growth trajectories were developed from longitudinal measurements from 20 weeks gestation up to 5 years of age. We examined associations between maternal fasting glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR and leptin, taken in early pregnancy (14-16 weeks) and late pregnancy (28 weeks), and weight (kg) and abdominal circumference (cm) trajectories using linear spline multilevel models.
We found no strong evidence of associations between any maternal metabolic parameters and fetal to childhood weight and abdominal circumference trajectories from 20 weeks gestation to 5 years.
In a cohort of women with obesity with infants at risk of macrosomia, maternal metabolic markers were not strongly associated with trajectories of weight or abdominal circumference from 20 weeks gestation to 5 years of age.

Growth deviating from the norm during childhood has been associated with anorexia nervosa (AN) and obesity later in life. In this study, we examined whether polygenic scores (PGSs) for AN and BMI are associated with growth trajectories spanning the first two decades of life. AN PGSs and BMI PGSs were calculated for participants of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC; n = 8,654). Using generalized (mixed) linear models, we associated PGSs with trajectories of weight, height, body mass index (BMI), fat mass index (FMI), lean mass index (LMI), and bone mineral density (BMD). Female participants with AN PGSs one standard deviation (SD) higher had, on average, 0.004% slower growth in BMI between the ages 6.5 and 24 years and a 0.4% slower gain in BMD between the ages 10 and 24 years. Higher BMI PGSs were associated with faster growth for BMI, FMI, LMI, BMD, and weight trajectories in both sexes throughout childhood. Female participants with both a high AN PGS and a low BMI PGS showed slower growth compared to those with both a low AN PGS and a low BMI PGS. We conclude that AN PGSs and BMI PGSs have detectable sex-specific effects on growth trajectories. Female participants with a high AN PGS and low BMI PGS likely constitute a high-risk group for AN, as their growth was slower compared to their peers with high PGSs on both traits. Further research is needed to better understand how the AN PGS and the BMI PGS co-influence growth during childhood and whether a high BMI PGS can mitigate the effects of a high AN PGS.

Coexposure to air pollution and tobacco smoke may influence early-life growth, but few studies have investigated their joint effects. We examined the interaction between fetal exposure to maternal smoking and ozone (O3) or fine particulate matter (PM2.5) on birth weight, neonatal adiposity, and body mass index (BMI) trajectories through age 3 years.
UNASSIGNED: Participants were 526 mother-child pairs, born ≥37 weeks. Cotinine was measured at ~27 weeks gestation. Whole pregnancy and trimester-specific O3 and PM2.5 were estimated via. inverse-distance weighted interpolation from stationary monitors. Neonatal adiposity (fat mass percentage) was measured via. air displacement plethysmography. Child weight and length/height were abstracted from medical records. Interaction was assessed by introducing cotinine (<31.5 vs. ≥31.5 ng/mL [indicating active smoking]), O3/PM2.5 (low [tertiles 1-2] vs. high [tertile 3]), and their product term in linear regression models for birth weight and neonatal adiposity and mixed-effects models for BMI trajectories.
UNASSIGNED: The rate of BMI growth among offspring jointly exposed to maternal smoking and high PM2.5 (between 8.1 and 12.7 μg/m3) in the third trimester was more rapid than would be expected due to the individual exposures alone (0.8 kg/m2 per square root year; 95% CI = 0.1, 1.5; P for interaction = 0.03). We did not detect interactions between maternal smoking and O3 or PM2.5 at any other time on birth weight, neonatal adiposity, or BMI trajectories.
UNASSIGNED: Although PM2.5 was generally below the EPA annual air quality standards of 12.0 μg/m3, exposure during the third trimester may influence BMI trajectories when combined with maternal smoking.