Cognitive neuroscience seeks to pinpoint the neural basis of cognitive function. Application of scientific methods can be credited for its advancement within the field of psychology. Past approaches such as phrenology, that linked bumps on the skull to mental capabilities, initially gained popularity, but the lack of experimental testing contributed to its demise. Research in neuropsychology and the use of the double dissociation experimental technique subsequently emerged. Objective measurements of behaviour following selective damage within the brain led to a paradigm shift. More recently, application of the subtraction technique, coupled with the emergence of cognitive neuroimaging tools, has allowed psychologists to isolate and measure specific functions such as language, vision, memory, and recognition of emotion. Importantly, these approaches enable reliable prediction of behaviours, given parameters of brain integrity, a key goal within the field of psychology.

We present a case report of diagnosis of cervical spine multiple sclerosis by a chiropractic physician. This unique case contributes an account of a challenging differential diagnosis to the literature. A 30-year-old male presented with a three-year history of diffuse left upper extremity motor strength deficits and paresthesia (numbness and tingling). The patient had seen multiple physicians for these symptoms with no diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and no advanced imaging. The differential diagnosis included lower cervical spine nerve root compression or neurological disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, cerebral lesion, motor neuropathy, multiple sclerosis, or spinal cord lesion. MRI of the cervical spine with and without IV contrast revealed evidence of spinal cord multiple sclerosis. The patient was referred to a neurologist where the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis was confirmed. A 10-year follow-up showed the patient was controlling his condition with medications and had no disability. This case underscores the importance for physicians to consider neurological conditions and advanced imaging in the presence of diffuse motor strength deficits and paresthesia in the absence of injury, pain, or any other symptoms.

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A case involving a patient with an impacted and angulated femoral neck fracture presenting to a chiropractic physician is rare. This unique case contributes an account of a challenging differential diagnosis to the literature. A 65-year-old female, reporting no history of trauma, presented with a two-week history of right lower back and right anterior hip pain radiating down the front of the right thigh in the L2-L4 dermatome. The differential diagnosis included lumbar spine disc herniation and nerve root compression or a right hip abnormality. An MRI of the lumbar spine revealed L3-L4 and L4-L5 posterior disc bulges and right foraminal narrowing. She was subsequently referred to pain management and diagnosed with lumbar radiculopathy and neural foraminal stenosis. After three lumbar spine epidural injections and a period of conservative care, the patient\'s symptoms were 90% improved but not fully resolved. Subsequently, right hip X-rays were ordered. The x-rays revealed an impacted and angulated right femoral neck base fracture. At this time, the patient recalled a possible traumatic incident. The patient was immediately referred to an orthopedic surgeon. After a month\'s delay waiting for further advanced imaging, a total right hip replacement was performed. This case underscores the importance for physicians to recognize that patients may not be aware of their own history of trauma. It also highlights the need for physicians to consider the possibility of multiple concurrent pathologies and to order imaging for all areas of pain.

The history of adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD), adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN) and other peroxisomal diseases is exemplary for the stunning progress of scientific medicine within the past 50 years. Like many breakthroughs in medicine, the detailed analysis of patients\' pathologically affected tissues was instrumental, resulting in stepwise systematic clarification of what had remained enigmatic until the 1970s. This flashback paper is a recollection of the first neuropathological description of a slowly evolving clinical phenotype, spastic paraparesis with adrenal insufficiency, in a young adult by Budka et al. 1976 [3], using virtual microscopy of the original histologic slides. The clinico-pathological presentation derives from the classical cerebral ALD phenotype in boys, where electron microscopy demonstrated the underlying pathological hallmark of characteristic lipid inclusions shared by both phenotypes. Our report allowed the delineation of a new disease type almost simultaneously described in more cases as AMN by Griffin et al. 1977 [4] and Schaumburg et al. 1977 [11]. Moreover, our report indicated clinical heterogeneity in the ALD disease group that, as shown later, extends further to females, to Addison-only, and even to asymptomatic subjects. The gene underlying ALD was discovered in 1993 as a defect in the ABCD1 gene. Yet, it has hitherto remained unclear how the gene defect causes the strikingly broad and unpredictable phenotypic spectrum of ALD/AMN.

Limb trauma remains the most prevalent survivable major combat injury. In the First World War, more than 700,000 British soldiers received limb wounds and more than 41,000 underwent an amputation, creating one of the largest amputee cohorts in history. Postamputation pain affects up to 85% of military amputees, suggesting that up to 33,000 British First World War veterans potentially reported postamputation pain. This qualitative systematic review explores the professional medical conversation around clinical management of chronic postamputation pain in this patient cohort, its development over the 20th century, and how this information was disseminated among medical professionals. We searched The Lancet and British Medical Journal archives (1914-1985) for reports referring to postamputation pain, its prevalence, mechanisms, descriptors, or clinical management. Participants were First World War veterans with a limb amputation, excluding civilians and veterans of all other conflicts. The search identified 9809 potentially relevant texts, of which 101 met the inclusion criteria. Reports emerged as early as 1914 and the discussion continued over the next 4 decades. Unexpected findings included early advocacy of multidisciplinary pain management, concerns over addiction, and the effect of chronic pain on mental health emerging decades earlier than previously thought. Chronic postamputation pain is still a significant issue for military rehabilitation. Similarities between injury patterns in the First World War and recent Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts mean that these historical aspects remain relevant to today\'s military personnel, clinicians, researchers, and policymakers.

BACKGROUND: The Swedish political system is based on a strong tradition of commissions of inquiry, which work over the long-term to develop knowledge-based policy. This study explores knowledge processes associated with the work of such commissions, focusing on the case of the abolition of the Swedish alcohol rationing system. The point of departure is the 1944 Temperance Committee and its internal committee work, the committee\'s reports, and also the resulting governmental bill that led to the abolition of the rationing system in 1955. The focus is directed at how the public was used in arguments for and against the abolition of the system.
METHODS: The article adds to studies of knowledge production in policy by presenting a case study of the various ways in which the arguments used in political processes rely on the public as a carrying infrastructure over the course of a political process. We use the concept of the infrastructure (Star, 1999) as a metaphor to engage with the way the public is taken for granted in policy processes, and with the discursive resources needed to move arguments forward within a political process.
RESULTS: Political processes involve many activities related to the movement of knowledge, of which we have explored the use of the public as an activity required for the movement of arguments. The public is understood as providing both conversational and legalistic resources for moving arguments from one context to another. While the internal committee documents and the final bill allowed for an everyday use of the public in relation to arguments on hassle, annoyance and freedom, the committee reports combined the use of the public with formal arguments on legal processes and the public\'s sense of justice.
CONCLUSIONS: Explanations of the movement of knowledge often miss the articulation work (Star, 1991) that takes place within policy processes. The public is indirectly present, as well-behaving witnesses used to emphasize arguments, and as such, they do plenty of work. At the same time, it is the committee documents that facilitate the presence of this public, which often lie far from the publics\' actual potential to make their voices heard. Although a perception of the rationing system\'s lack of support in popular opinion constituted a backdrop to the work of the committee, there was little knowledge of the publics\' actual views on the rationing system. We show that the public constitute a spoken rather than a material resource that proves quite effective: the public is rarely questioned as long as it is a restricted singular public that behaves well. To date, little attention has been focused on understanding the role of the everyday actors in relation to alcohol policy and other forms of drug policy. We argue that research needs to engage more with the way publics are allowed to indirectly or directly participate in policy processes and what knowledge and policy consequences this participation produces.

Anton de Haen (1704-1776) became one of the most influential physicians in the Habsburg Empire as a reformer of clinical instruction at Vienna Citizen\'s Hospital (Bürgerspital), where he introduced the bedside teaching method he had learned from Herman Boerhaave in Leyden, Holland. He also promoted the meticulous recording of clinical observations and the use of postmortem studies to identify the cause of death in hospitalized patients. Among the numerous clinicopathological reports compiled in his monumental 18-volume work Rationis Medendi in Nosocomio Practico, published in 1761, was the first documented patient with amenorrhea caused by a pituitary tumor, appearing in the 6th volume. This 20-year-old amaurotic woman, who had suffered from chronic excruciating headache, died after the unsuccessful application of a cauterizing iron to her temporal bone. At the autopsy, a large solid-cystic and calcified tumor with gross characteristics typical of adamantinomatous craniopharyngioma was found encroaching on the infundibulum and third ventricle. This is the first known account of an infundibulo-tuberal lesion associated with the impairment of sexual functions, predating by 140 years the pathological evidence for a sexual brain center sited at the basal hypothalamus. In this paper, the authors analyze the historical importance and impact of de Haen\'s foundational report on the fields of neuroendocrinology and neurosurgery.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on health inequalities has been growing over the past few decades, yet the capacity to produce research on health inequalities varies between countries worldwide and needs to be strengthened. More in-depth understanding of the sociohistorical, political and institutional processes that enable this type of research and related research capacity to be generated in different contexts is needed. A recent bibliometric analysis of the health inequalities research field found inequalities in the global production of this type of research. It also found the United Kingdom to be the second-highest global contributor to this research field after the United States. This study aims to understand why and how the United Kingdom, as an example of a \"high producer\" of health inequalities research, has been able to generate so much health inequalities research over the past five decades, and which main mechanisms might have been involved in generating this specific research capacity over time.
METHODS: We conducted a realist explanatory case study, which included 12 semi-structured interviews, to test six theoretical mechanisms that we proposed might have been involved in this process. Data from the interviews and grey and scientific literature were triangulated to inform our findings.
RESULTS: We found evidence to suggest that at least four of our proposed mechanisms have been activated by certain conditions and have contributed to the health inequalities research production process in the United Kingdom over the past 50 years. Limited evidence suggests that two new mechanisms might have potentially also been at play.
CONCLUSIONS: Valuable learning can be established from this case study, which explores the United Kingdom\'s experience in developing a strong national health inequalities research tradition, and the potential mechanisms involved in this process. More research is needed to explore additional facilitating and inhibiting mechanisms and other factors involved in this process in this context, as well as in other settings where less health inequalities research has been produced. This type of in-depth knowledge could be used to guide the development of new health inequalities research capacity-strengthening strategies and support the development of novel approaches and solutions aiming to tackle health inequalities.