The effect of varying extrusion conditions on the functional properties of hulless barley-mung bean (70:30) extruded snacks was investigated using response surface methodology with feed moisture (FM), barrel temperature (BT), and screw speed (SS) as process variables. Results revealed significant impacts on functional characteristics with varying extrusion conditions. Bulk density (BD) of extruded snacks ranged from 0.24 to 0.42 g/cm3, showing that lower FM and higher BT results in lower BD while it increased with increasing FM, SS, and BT. The expansion ratio (ER) of extruded snacks ranged between 2.03 and 2.33, showing BT and SS had a desirable positive effect, whereas increasing FM led to decreased ER. Increasing BT and SS depicted a negative effect on water absorption index, whereas FM showed positive effect, which ranged between 4.21 and 4.82 g/g. A positive effect on water solubility index was depicted by BT and SS, which ranges between 9.01% and 13.45%, as higher SS and BT led to starch degradation and increased solubility suggesting better digestibility. The hardness of extruded snacks ranged from 32.56 to 66.88 Newton (N), showing increasing FM increased hardness, whereas higher SS and BT resulted in lowering the hardness. Scanning electronic microscope (SEM) analysis revealed structural changes in extrudates in comparison with nonextruded flour, indicating starch gelatinization and pore formation affected by varying processing parameters. Shifts in absorption bands were observed in Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), suggesting structural changes in starch and protein. Understanding the effects of extrusion parameters on product properties can help tailored production to meet consumers\' preferences and the development of functional snacks with improved nutritional quality.

There is an increasing amount of research into the development of a third generation of iron supplementation using peptide-iron chelates. Peptides isolated from mung bean were chelated with ferrous iron (MBP-Fe) and tested as a supplement in mice suffering from iron-deficiency anemia (IDA). Mice were randomly divided into seven groups: a group fed the normal diet, the IDA model group, and IDA groups treated with inorganic iron (FeSO4), organic iron (ferrous bisglycinate, Gly-Fe), low-dose MBP-Fe(L-MBP-Fe), high-dose MBP-Fe(H-MBP-Fe), and MBP mixed with FeSO4 (MBP/Fe). The different iron supplements were fed for 28 days via intragastric administration. The results showed that MBP-Fe and MBP/Fe had ameliorative effects, restoring hemoglobin (HGB), red blood cell (RBC), hematocrit (HCT), and serum iron (SI) levels as well as total iron binding capacity (TIBC) and body weight gain of the IDA mice to normal levels. Compared to the inorganic (FeSO4) and organic (Gly-Fe) iron treatments, the spleen coefficient and damage to liver and spleen tissues were significantly lower in the H-MBP-Fe and MBP/Fe mixture groups, with reparative effects on jejunal tissue. Gene expression analysis of the iron transporters Dmt 1 (Divalent metal transporter 1), Fpn 1 (Ferroportin 1), and Dcytb (Duodenal cytochrome b) indicated that MBP promoted iron uptake. These findings suggest that mung bean peptide-ferrous chelate has potential as a peptide-based dietary supplement for treating iron deficiency.

Drought stress following climate change is likely a scenario that will have to face crop growers in tropical regions. In mitigating this constraint, the best option should be the selection and use of resilient varieties that can withstand drought threats. Therefore, a pot experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions at the Research and Teaching Farm of the Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Sciences of the University of Dschang. The objectives are to identify sensitive growth stage, to identify drought-tolerant genotypes with the help of yield-based selection indices and to identify suitable selection indices that are associated with yield under non-stress and stress circumstances. Eighty-eight cowpea genotypes from the sahelian and western regions of Cameroon were subjected to drought stress at vegetative (VDS) and flowering (FDS) stages by withholding water for 28 days, using a split plot design with two factors and three replications. Seed yields under stress (Ys) and non-stress (Yp) conditions were recorded. Fifteen drought indices were calculated for the two drought stress levels against the yield from non-stress plants. Drought Intensity Index (DII) under VDS and FDS were 0.71 and 0.84 respectively, indicating severe drought stress for both stages. However, flowering stage was significantly more sensitive to drought stress compared to vegetative stage. Based on PCA and correlation analysis, Stress Tolerance Index (STI), Relative Efficiency Index (REI), Geometric Mean Productivity (GMP), Mean Productivity (MP), Yield Index (YI) and Harmonic Mean (HM) correlated strongly with yield under stress and non-stress conditions and are therefore suitable to discriminate high-yielding and tolerant genotypes under both stress and non-stress conditions. Either under VDS and FDS, CP-016 exhibited an outstanding performance under drought stress and was revealed as the most drought tolerant genotype as shown by ranking, PCA and cluster analysis. Taking into account all indices, the top five genotypes namely CP-016, CP-021, MTA-22, CP-056 and CP-060 were identified as the most drought-tolerant genotypes under VDS. For stress activated at flowering stage (FDS), CP-016, CP-056, CP-021, CP-028 and MTA-22 were the top five most drought-tolerant genotypes. Several genotypes with insignificant Ys and irrelevant rank among which CP-037, NDT-001, CP-036, CP-034, NDT-002, CP-031, NDT-011 were identified as highly drought sensitive with low yield stability. This study identified the most sensitive stage and drought tolerant genotypes that are proposed for genetic improvement of cowpea.

Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) have been credible constituents of nutritious food and forage in human and animal diets since the Neolithic era. The modern technique of Diversity Array Technology (DArTseq) is both cost-effective and rapid in producing thousands of high-throughputs, genotyped, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in wide-genomic analyses of genetic diversity. The aim of this study was to assess the heterogeneity in cowpea genotypes using DArTseq-derived SNPs. A total of 92 cowpea genotypes were selected, and their fourteen-day-old leaves were freeze-dried for five days. DNA was extracted using the CTAB protocol, genotyped using DArTseq, and analysed using DArTsoft14. A total of 33,920 DArTseq-derived SNPs were recalled for filtering analysis, with a final total of 16,960 SNPs. The analyses were computed using vcfR, poppr, and ape in R Studio v1.2.5001-3 software. The heatmap revealed that the TVU 9596 (SB26), Orelu (SB72), 90K-284-2 (SB55), RV 403 (SB17), and RV 498 (SB16) genotypes were heterogenous. The mean values for polymorphic information content, observed heterozygosity, expected heterozygosity, major allele frequency, and the inbreeding coefficient were 0.345, 0.386, 0.345, 0.729, and 0.113, respectively. Moreover, they validated the diversity of the evaluated cowpea genotypes, which could be used for potential breeding programmes and management of cowpea germplasm.

BACKGROUND: Cowpea wilt is a harmful disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum, leading to substantial losses in cowpea production. Melatonin reportedly regulates plant immunity to pathogens; however the specific regulatory mechanism underlying the protective effect of melatonin pretreated of cowpea against Fusarium oxysporum remains known. Accordingly, the study sought to evaluate changes in the physiological and biochemical indices of cowpea following melatonin treated to facilitate Fusarium oxysporum resistance and elucidate the associated molecular mechanism using a weighted gene coexpression network.
RESULTS: Treatment with 100 µM melatonin was effective in increasing cowpea resistance to Fusarium oxysporum. Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), catalase (CAT), and salicylic acid (SA) levels were significantly upregulated, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels were significantly downregulated in melatonin treated samples in roots. Weighted gene coexpression network analysis of melatonin- and Fusarium oxysporum-treated samples identified six expression modules comprising 2266 genes; the number of genes per module ranged from 9 to 895. In particular, 17 redox genes and 32 transcription factors within the blue module formed a complex interconnected expression network. KEGG analysis revealed that the associated pathways were enriched in secondary metabolism, peroxisomes, phenylalanine metabolism, flavonoids, and flavonol biosynthesis. More specifically, genes involved in lignin synthesis, catalase, superoxide dismutase, and peroxidase were upregulated. Additionally, exogenous melatonin induced activation of transcription factors, such as WRKY and MYB.
CONCLUSIONS: The study elucidated changes in the expression of genes associated with the response of cowpea to Fusarium oxysporum under melatonin treated. Specifically, multiple defence mechanisms were initiated to improve cowpea resistance to Fusarium oxysporum.

With the surge in protein demand, the application of plant proteins has ushered in a new wave of research. Mung bean is a potential source of protein due to its high protein content (20-30 %). The nutrition, structure, function, and application of mung bean protein have always been a focus of attention. In this paper, these highlighted points have been reviewed to explore the potential application value of mung bean protein. Mung bean protein contains a higher content of essential amino acids than soybean protein, which can meet the amino acid values recommended by FAO/WHO for adults. Mung bean protein also can promote human health due to its bioactivity, such as the antioxidant, and anti-cancer activity. Meanwhile, mung bean protein also has well solubility, foaming, emulsification and gelation properties. Therefore, mung bean protein can be used as an antioxidant edible film additive, emulsion-based food, active substance carrier, and meat analogue in the food industry. It is understood there are still relatively few commercial applications of mung bean protein. This paper highlights the potential application of mung bean proteins, and aims to provide a reference for future commercial applications of mung bean proteins.

Cowpea is a leguminous plant belonging to the fabaceae family cultivated in the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, with productive potential. Among the abiotic factors, water deficiency is one of the main environmental limitations that influence agricultural production in the world. The objective of this work was to study the relative water content and osmoregulators of cowpea plants subjected to water stress. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse at the Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia (UFRA, Belém, PA), cowpea plants BR-17 Gurguéia Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp were used. The experimental design was completely randomized (DIC) in a 2 × 2 factorial scheme, two water conditions (control and water deficit) and two times of stress (four and six days of water suspension), with 7 replications, totaling 28 experimental units. The water deficit affected plants, causing a reduction in relative water content (69.98%), starch (12.84% in leaves and 23.48% in roots) and carbohydrates (84.34%), and an increase in glycine-betaine, sucrose (114.11% in leaves and 18.71% in roots) and proline (358.86%) at time 2. The relative water content was negatively affected by water conditions, with a decrease in relation to the interaction of the aerial part and the root system. Therefore, greater metabolic responses were noted in plants that were subjected to stress treatment at time 2 (6 days).

Rice bean [Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi and Ohashi], an annual legume in the genus Vigna, is a promising crop suitable for cultivation in a changing climate to ensure food security. It is also a medicinal plant widely used in traditional Chinese medicine; however, little is known about the medicinal compounds in rice bean. In this study, we assessed the diuretic effect of rice bean extracts on mice as well as its relationship with the contents of eight secondary metabolites in seeds. Mice gavaged with rice bean extracts from yellow and black seeds had higher urinary output (5.44-5.47 g) and water intake (5.8-6.3 g) values than mice gavaged with rice bean extracts from red seeds. Correlation analyses revealed significant negative correlations between urine output and gallic acid (R = -0.70) and genistein (R = -0.75) concentrations, suggesting that these two polyphenols negatively regulate diuresis. There were no obvious relationships between mice diuresis-related indices (urine output, water intake, and weight loss) and rutin or catechin contents, although the concentrations of both of these polyphenols in rice bean seeds were higher than the concentrations of the other six secondary metabolites. Our study findings may be useful for future research on the diuretic effects of rice bean, but they should be confirmed on the basis of systematic medical trials.

CONCLUSIONS: The investigation of MYMIV-infected mung bean leaf apoplast revealed viral genome presence, increased EVs secretion, and altered stress-related metabolite composition, providing comprehensive insights into plant-virus interactions. The apoplast, an extracellular space around plant cells, plays a vital role in plant-microbe interactions, influencing signaling, defense, and nutrient transport. While the involvement of apoplast and extracellular vesicles (EVs) in RNA virus infection is documented, the role of the apoplast in plant DNA viruses remains unclear. This study explores the apoplast\'s role in mungbean yellow mosaic India virus (MYMIV) infection. Our findings demonstrate the presence of MYMIV genomic components in apoplastic fluid, suggesting potential begomovirus cell-to-cell movement via the apoplast. Moreover, MYMIV infection induces increased EVs secretion into the apoplast. NMR-based metabolomics reveals altered metabolic profiles in both apoplast and symplast in response to MYMIV infection, highlighting key metabolites associated with stress and defense mechanisms. The data show an elevation of α- and β-glucose in both apoplast and symplast, suggesting a shift in glucose utilization. Interestingly, this increase in glucose does not contribute to the synthesis of phenolic compounds, potentially influencing the susceptibility of mung bean to MYMIV. Fructose levels increase in the symplast, while apoplastic sucrose levels rise significantly. Symplastic aspartate levels increase, while proline exhibits elevated concentration in the apoplast and reduced concentration in the cytosol, suggesting a role in triggering a hypersensitive response. These findings underscore the critical role of the apoplast in begomovirus infection, providing insights for targeted viral disease management strategies.

The beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), has become a significant pest of chickpea in recent years. The polyphagous nature allows it to survive on various hosts during the off-season, creating a great menace to the crop in the following season. To assess the incidence and document the alternate hosts of S. exigua, a rapid roving survey was conducted in 11 chickpea-growing areas of Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Additionally, the life history traits of S. exigua were studied on major alternate host plants under laboratory conditions (27 ± 1 °C and 70 ± 2% RH) to understand the survival, life expectancy and potential contribution to future populations. The results show that, among the different crops surveyed, the maximum larval incidence was noticed in maize (1.93 larvae/plant), cowpea (1.73 larvae/plant), and sunflower (1.68 larvae/plant) during the off-season. Life history studies of S. exigua showed that highest larval survival percentage was observed on chickpea (83.6%), while the lowest was on maize (44.5%). The mean developmental time for larvae was longest on maize (27.1 days) and shortest on chickpea (14.9 days). Larvae did not develop beyond the third instar when fed with chilli. The growth index statistics showed chickpea (9.2) was the most suitable host plant, whereas maize (0.9) was the least suitable host. The age-stage-specific survival rate (Sxj) varied across developmental stages, and the survival curves overlapped, indicating different growth rates among individuals. The life expectancy (exj) at age zero was highest on groundnut (37.06 days). The intrinsic rate of increase (r) of S. exigua was lowest on maize (0.10 ± 0.0013) and highest on chickpea (0.22 ± 0.0010). Similarly, the net reproductive rate (R0) was highest on chickpea (846.39 ± 18.22) and lowest on maize (59.50 ± 2.06). The population doubled every 3.08 ± 0.011 days on chickpea compared to 7.22 ± 0.80 days on maize. The study conclusively indicates that chickpea and sunflower, primarily cultivated during the rabi season in India, are the most preferred hosts for S. exigua. In contrast, maize and cotton, mainly grown during the kharif season, are less preferred and merely support the pest\'s survival. Consequently, S. exigua switches hosts between different crops growing seasons, so effective management of S. exigua during the kharif season can help prevent pest outbreaks during the rabi season.