Newborns who do not reach a weight appropriate for their gestational age and sex can be classified in different ways. This article defines the concepts of small for gestational age (SGA) and intrauterine growth restriction, as well as the underlying causes of these conditions, with the goal of establishing consensus definitions for these patients, in whom treatment with growth hormone throughout childhood may be indicated and who may be at risk of developing endocrine or metabolic disorders in puberty and adulthood. Most SGA children experience spontaneous catch-up growth that is usually completed by age 2 years. In SGA children who remain short, treatment with recombinant human growth hormone is effective, increasing adult height. Small for gestational age infants with rapid catch-up growth and marked weight gain are at increased risk of premature adrenarche, early puberty, polycystic ovary syndrome (girls), insulin resistance and obesity, all of which are risk factors for type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in adulthood. The SGA status can affect different areas of neurodevelopment and manifest at different stages in life; neurodevelopmental outcomes are better in SGA infants with spontaneous catch-up growth. Due to the potential risks associated with SGA, adequate characterization of these patients at birth is imperative, as it allows initiation of appropriate follow-up and early detection of abnormalities.

The present review focuses on growth hormone (GH) deficiency in pediatric and adult patients following surgery for hypothalamic-pituitary tumors, with a special emphasis on hormone replacement therapy with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH). The symptoms and metabolic changes associated with GH deficiency are reviewed, and the potential risks and therapeutic outcomes of rhGH treatment in these patients are discussed. This review emphasizes the importance of rhGH in the normalization of growth in children and the improvement of quality of life (QoL) and metabolic health in adults. Aspects related to efficacy, safety, dosage, duration of treatment, and QoL in this population are analyzed. The need for regular follow-up and dose adjustment to maintain the optimal IGF-I levels in these patients is emphasized, as is the importance of individualized assessment and collaboration with a specialized multidisciplinary medical team to make the appropriate therapeutic decisions. Furthermore, continuous follow-up are necessary to optimize the clinical outcomes in this patient population.

Drug resistance in melanoma is a major hindrance in cancer therapy. Growth hormone (GH) plays a pivotal role in contributing to the resistance to chemotherapy. Knocking down or blocking the GH receptor has been shown to sensitize the tumor cells to chemotherapy. Extensive studies have demonstrated that exosomes, a subset of extracellular vesicles, play an important role in drug resistance by transferring key factors to sensitize cancer cells to chemotherapy. In this study, we explore how GH modulates exosomal cargoes from melanoma cells and their role in drug resistance. We treated the melanoma cells with GH, doxorubicin, and the GHR antagonist, pegvisomant, and analyzed the exosomes released. Additionally, we administered these exosomes to the recipient cells. The GH-treated melanoma cells released exosomes with elevated levels of ABC transporters (ABCC1 and ABCB1), N-cadherin, and MMP2, enhancing drug resistance and migration in the recipient cells. GHR antagonism reduced these exosomal levels, restoring drug sensitivity and attenuating migration. Overall, our findings highlight a novel role of GH in modulating exosomal cargoes that drive chemoresistance and metastasis in melanoma. This understanding provides insights into the mechanisms of GH in melanoma chemoresistance and suggests GHR antagonism as a potential therapy to overcome chemoresistance in melanoma treatment.

The growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) system regulates skeletal muscle growth and function. GH has a major function of targeting the liver to regulate IGF-1 production and release, and IGF-1 mediates the primary anabolic action of GH on growth. However, skeletal muscle is a target tissue of GH as evidenced by dynamic GH receptor expression, but it is unclear if GH elicits any direct actions on extrahepatic tissues as it is difficult to distinguish the effects of IGF-1 from GH. Fish growth regulation is complex compared to mammals, as genome duplication events have resulted in multiple isoforms of GHs, GHRs, IGFs, and IGFRs expressed in most fish tissues. This study investigated the potential for GH direct actions on fish skeletal muscle using an in vitro system, where rainbow trout myogenic precursor cells (MPCs) were cultured in normal and serum-deprived media, to mimic in vivo fasting conditions. Fasting reduces IGF-1 signaling in the muscle, which is critical for disentangling the roles of GH from IGF-1. The direct effects of GH were analyzed by measuring changes in myogenic proliferation and differentiation genes, as well as genes regulating muscle growth and proteolysis. This study provides the first in-depth analysis of the direct actions of GH on serum-deprived fish muscle cells in vitro. Data suggest that GH induces the expression of markers for proliferation and muscle growth in the presence of serum, but all observed GH action was blocked in serum-deprived conditions. Additionally, serum deprivation alone reduced the expression of several proliferation and differentiation markers, while increasing growth and proteolysis markers. Results also demonstrate dynamic gene expression response in the presence of GH and a JAK inhibitor in serum-provided but not serum-deprived conditions. These data provide a better understanding of GH signaling in relation to serum in trout muscle cells in vitro.

OBJECTIVE: Growth hormone deficiency (GHD) causes growth disturbances during childhood. The most recommended treatment of GHD is the administration of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH). Recent studies have proved that well-nourished GHD children respond better to rhGH therapy compared to undernourished individuals. The aim of this study was to analyze nutritional status along with height velocity in GHD children during the first two years of rhGH therapy, and to estimate the optimal BMI z-score range in which these children achieve the best growth results.
METHODS: This retrospective analysis included 80 prepubertal idiopathic GHD children treated with rhGH. Anthropometric data were obtained from medical records made at an initial visit and then follow-up visits after 12 and 24 months of treatment. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated and standardized into z-score, basing on Cole\'s LMS method. Then, the BMI z-score was analyzed in relation to the parameters of growth response.
RESULTS: The higher the BMI z-score at treatment entry, the greater the increase in height during the first twelve months of rhGH therapy. BMI z-score ≥0 noted at the beginning of each year of the treatment are associated with significantly better growth increments throughout the first and the second years of the therapy.
CONCLUSIONS: Prepubertal idiopathic GHD children with BMI z-score below 0 would probably benefit from the improvement of their nutritional status prior to the rhGH treatment beginning. It seems that increasing BMI z-score to obtain values between 0 and 1 would be optimal for the growth process.

Like the ovaries and prostate, the thyroid exhibits characteristic hormone secretion and regulation. Thyroid cancer (TC), especially differentiated thyroid carcinoma, has typical sex-specific and age-specific hormone-driven clinical features. Previous research has primarily focused on the effects of thyroid stimulating hormone, thyroid hormones, and estrogens on the onset and progression of TC, while the roles of growth hormone (GH), androgens, and glucocorticoids have largely been overlooked. Similarly, few studies have investigated the interactions between hormones and hormone systems. In fact, numerous studies of patients with acromegaly have shown that serum levels of GH and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) may be associated with the onset and progression of TC, although the influences of age, sex, and other risk factors, such as obesity and stress, remain unclear. Sex hormones, the GH/IGF axis, and glucocorticoids are likely involved in the onset and progression of TC by regulating the tumor microenvironment and metabolism. The aim of this review was to clarify the roles of hormones and hormone systems in TC, especially papillary thyroid carcinoma, as references for further investigations.

Background and objectives Obesity is a major global health concern linked with increased risk of chronic diseases. This study aimed to assess the levels of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) in subjects with obesity after gastric sleeve surgery and explore its correlation with lipid and glycemic parameters. Methods This retrospective cohort study included 28 obese male subjects aged 25 to 50 years, undergoing gastric sleeve surgery. Plasma levels of FGF21 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) before and six to 12 months after surgery. Other parameters including body mass index (BMI), fasting glucose, lipid profile, and insulin were also assessed and homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) was used to estimate insulin resistance. Results There was a significant increase in systemic FGF21 levels after surgery (45.12 vs. 126.16 pg/mL, p = 0.007). There was also a notable reduction in BMI (51.55 vs. 39.14, p < 0.001), insulin levels (20.06 vs. 8.85 mIU/L, p < 0.001), HOMA scores (6.94 to 2.49, p < 0.001), and glucose levels (7.33 vs. 6.08, p = 0.039). Lipid profile analysis post-surgery showed an increase in total cholesterol (4.38 vs. 5.09 mmol/L, p < 0.001) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (0.88 vs. 1.52 mmol/L, p < 0.001), with a decrease in triglycerides (1.75 vs. 1.01 mmol/L, p = 0.007). FGF21 positively correlated with growth hormone (GH), p = 0.0015, r = 0.59, and with insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), p = 0.03, r = 0.431. Conclusion FGF21 levels were increased following gastric sleeve surgery in obese male patients and were positively correlated with growth hormone and insulin IGF-1. These findings provide insights into the metabolic alterations following bariatric surgery and highlight the potential role of FGF21 as an important molecule in obesity management and treatment.

Since the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feed has been restricted or banned in several countries, finding suitable alternatives is crucial for maintaining animal health. In this study, a novel formate acidifier named sodium diformate (NaDF) was synthesized, and the effects on growth performance and the prevention effects against Salmonella enterica serovar Pullorum infections in chickens were assessed. In broilers, NaDF supplementation improved growth performance, as evidenced by increased body weights and reduced feed conversion ratios. At 38 days of age, NaDF supplementation increased the levels of growth-hormone and ghrelin in the serum, lowered pH values in the gut, improved duodenal morphology, as shown by increased villus length/crypt depth ratios. NaDF also modulated the abundance of beneficial and harmful bacteria without changing the general microbiota diversity and short-chain fatty acids levels, which would be beneficial for maintaining gut homeostasis during its use. NaDF exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity in vitro. Supplementation with NaDF effectively decreased S. Pullorum colonization in the cecum, liver and spleen in chickens, and mitigated pathological changes in the tissues. Therefore, as a novel acidifier, NaDF can improve chicken growth performance by increasing growth-related hormones levels while maintaining the diversity of gut microbiota, and also resist intestinal bacterial infection. These results provided evidences for the application of NaDF as an effective and safe animal feed in poultry farming.

UNASSIGNED: Collision tumors composed of craniopharyngiomas and pituitary adenomas are extremely rare. We report a collision tumor formed by a papillary craniopharyngioma and a growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma, which is the first report of such a tumor, to the best of our knowledge.
UNASSIGNED: A 49-year-old man presented with 2 months of headaches and blurry vision. An exam demonstrated frontal bossing, enlarged jaw and hands, macroglossia, and bitemporal hemianopsia, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a 4.1 cm sellar/suprasellar mass with mass effect on the optic chiasm. The tumor was resected twice via a craniotomy, the second time due to interval growth, with the pathology after both surgeries showing a papillary craniopharyngioma. IGF-1 was 517 ng/mL (68-225) and growth hormone suppression test was positive. Repeat MRI showed residual tumor with ongoing mass effect on the optic chiasm and radiation therapy was initiated. MRI showed interval growth of the mass and IGF-1 rose to 700 ng/mL after which the patient underwent a transsphenoidal resection of the tumor; the pathology showed a residual papillary craniopharyngioma and a PIT1 lineage adenoma with most cells expressing growth hormone. After developing numerous complications, the patient passed away.
UNASSIGNED: Collision tumors of the sella are often associated with an aggressive clinical course, as they often go undiagnosed preoperatively, thus reducing the likelihood of total resection and leading to higher rates of craniopharyngioma recurrence.
UNASSIGNED: A pituitary mass with an aggressive clinical course should prompt a high index of suspicion for a sellar collision tumor, though prognosis remains poor.

In humans\' and experimental animals\' components of the somatotropic axis, such as growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) concentrations, decrease with advancing age. Although there is evidence regarding IGF-1, the effect of age on GH in mares, as well as the relationships between both parameters, have not yet been elucidated. On the other hand, although GH and IGF-1 are related to follicular development, it is unknown if they could be correlated with the circulating concentrations of ovarian steroids in mares, as occurs in other species. The hypothesis of this study was that both GH and IGF-1 could experience physiological changes with advancing age also in mares, and that both GH/IGF-1 could be correlated with oestradiol-17β (E2) and progesterone (P4), as recorded for other species. Hence, the objective of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of GH, IGF-1, E2, and P4 in mares, according to the different ages. Blood samples were drawn from 56 healthy cyclic Spanish Purebred mares belonging to four different age groups: 6-9 years, 10-13 years, 14-16 years and >16 years. Mares aged 6-9 years and 10-13 years showed higher GH concentrations (P < 0.05) than mares of 14-16 and >16 years; and mares aged 14-16 showed higher GH concentrations (P < 0.05) than >16 years (P < 0.05). Mares aged >16 years showed lower IGF-1 concentrations (P < 0.05) than mares of 6-9, 10-13 and 14-16 years (P < 0.05). The concentrations of E2 and P4 showed no significant differences among different age groups. Both GH and IGF-1 were not correlated with each other or with E2 and P4. The concentrations of E2 and P4 did not change with age. Advancing age leads to a decrease in the activity of the somatotropic axis in physiological cyclic mares, represented by a significant GH reduction, which, however, was ascribed for IGF-1 exclusively to mares over 16 years of age, without alterations in steroid hormone patterns.