This paper starts from the unusual observation of the overrepresentation of females among adults in the cemetery of Bronze Age Shahr-i Sokhta (Seistan, Iran) and explores the post marital residence pattern. By integrating taphonomical (skeletal preservation), anthropological (sex ratio [SR], sexual dimorphism, stress indicators, age at death), archeological (long distance trade indicators, habitation floor area, social role of women), and ancient DNA (heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes) data we test the hypothesis of post marital matrilocality in the site.
We computed the SR (pelvis-based sex determination) in a random unpublished adult sample from the cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta and in two samples previously published by other authors. We used comparative data on SR from: a large Supra Regional multi-chronological sample of sites, n = 47, with 8808 adult sexed individuals, from Southern Europe, Egypt, Middle East, Southern Russia; a Regional Bronze Age sample of sites (n = 10) from Bactria Margiana and Indus Valley with 1324 adult sexed individuals. We estimated the heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes compared with the rest of the autosomes on the assumption that in a matrilocal society females should show lower variability than men.
Adult SR in a sample (n = 549) from Shahr-i Sokhta is 70.5, the overrepresentation of females is shared with Regional Bronze Age sites from Bactria Margiana (SR = 72.09) and Indus Valley (SR = 67.54). On the contrary, in a larger Supra Regional multi-chronological sample of sites, mean SR ranges between 112.7 (Bronze Age) and 163.1 (Middle Ages). Taphonomical and anthropological indicators do not explain the overrepresentation of female skeletons. Archeological indicators suggest a high social status of women and that the society was devoted to long range trade activities. heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes are in agreement with a matrilocal society.
Indicators suggest that Bronze Age Shahr-ì Sokhta was a matrilocal society and that long distance trade was an important economic factor producing an overrepresentation of adult female skeletons in the cemetery.

In this study, we tested the skeletal human remains from the 18th - early 19th century Orthodox cemeteries in Irkutsk, Eastern Siberia, for tuberculosis-associated morphological alterations and Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA. The morphologically studied bone collection included 591 individuals of mainly Caucasian origin. The molecular methods (IS6110-PCR and spoligotyping) suggested that at least four individuals (out of 15 TB-suspected, DNA-tested) were positive for the presence of M. tuberculosis DNA. All of them were males (3 maturus, 1 maturus senilis). Two of them date back to the second and third quarters of the 18th century, another to the last quarter of the 18th century, and the last one to the second half of the 19th century. The combined molecular analysis cautiously suggested presence of different strains and at least some of them represented not the currently predominant in Siberia Beijing genotype (M. tuberculosis East-Asian lineage) but strains of European origin. In conclusion, this study presented bioarchaeological and molecular evidence of tuberculosis in human skeletal remains from 18th-19th century Orthodox cemeteries in Irkutsk, Eastern Siberia. The samples are not M. bovis and represent human M. tuberculosis sensu stricto. Their precise phylogenetic identity is elusive but evokes the European/Russian origin of at least some isolates.

Dental calculus is becoming a crucial material in the study of past populations with increasing interest in its proteomic and genomic content. Here, we suggest further development of a protocol for analysis of ancient proteins and a combined approach for subsequent ancient DNA extraction. We tested the protocol on recent teeth, and the optimized protocol was applied to ancient tooth to limit the destruction of calculus as it is a precious and irreplaceable source of dietary, microbiological, and ecological information in the archeological context. Finally, the applicability of the protocol was demonstrated on samples of the ancient calculus.

The Iron Age in continental Europe is a period of profound cultural and biological importance with heterogeneous trends through space and time. Regional overviews are therefore useful for better understanding the main cultural and biological patterns characterizing this period across the European regions. For the area of modern Switzerland, a rich archeological and anthropological record represents the Late Iron Age. However, no review of the main anthropological and funerary patterns for this period is available to date. Here we assess the available demographic, paleopathological, funerary, and isotopic data for the Late Iron Age in the Swiss territory, and summarize the cultural and biological patterns emerging from the available literature. Finally, we highlight a series of research avenues for future studies.

The Kingdom of Kush in today\'s northern Sudan and southern Egypt (ancient Nubia) is often depicted as a secondary state relative to ancient Egypt. More recent investigations have set aside Egyptocentric and western, colonialist perspectives of state development focused on control of land and agricultural surplus, examining Kushites through the lens of African-based models of mobile pastoralism in which power and authority were achieved through control of herds and alliance-building. Here, analyses of radiogenic strontium isotopes in human dental enamel are used to investigate diachronic shifts in mobility patterns linked to pastoralism and state development during the Kerma period (ca. 2500-1100 BCE).
From five cemetery sites around al Qinifab, Sudan, upstream of the capital at Kerma, we analyzed the strontium isotope ratios of 50 teeth from 27 individuals dating from the Early through Late Kerma phases.
Individuals from the Early and Middle Kerma phases demonstrated considerable 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio variability (mean = 0.70835 ± 0.00109), with 50% falling outside the locally bioavailable strontium range. Conversely, most Classic (0.70756 ± 0.00043) and Late Kerma (0.70755 ± 0.00036) individuals exhibited ratios consistent with the local region.
These changes indicate a potential transformation in subsistence strategies and social organization as early communities engaged in a more mobile lifestyle than later groups, suggesting a greater degree of pastoralism followed by declining mobility with Kushite state coalescence and a shift to agropastoralism. Because 87 Sr/86 Sr ratios from enamel reflect childhood geographic residence, these findings indicate that mobility likely involved extended family groups, and not just transhumant adults.

This study compares humeral diaphyseal robusticity and asymmetry between Late Holocene hunter-gatherers from Alaska with the goal of reconstructing habitual activity in relation to culture and environment.
Ancestral remains from four geographic regions of Alaska were divided into five site groups defined by subsistence strategies and technology: Aleutian Islands, Coastal Bay, Far North Coastal, Inland/Riverine, and Tikeraq. Mid-distal humeral diaphyseal robusticity was quantified using cross-sectional geometric properties standardized by estimated body mass and bone length.
Humeral strength and bilateral asymmetry were greatest in Aleutian Island males, moderate in Far North Coastal and Tikeraq males, and reduced in Inland/Riverine males. Left-biased directional asymmetry and reduced humeral strength were found in Coastal Bay males. Aleutian Island males had relatively mediolaterally strengthened humeri compared with other groups. Aleutian Island females had elevated humeral strength, while humeral asymmetry among females was moderate and did not vary between groups. Humeri were relatively round among Aleutian Island and Tikeraq females and anteroposteriorly (A-P) strengthened among Coastal Bay, Far North Coastal, and Inland/Riverine females.
These results suggest elevated humeral strength and asymmetry in males that engaged in rowing and unimanual projectile hunting, while reduced humeral strength and asymmetry may reflect bow-and-arrow or ensnarement technologies. Left-biased humeral asymmetry may be associated with net-fishing. Humeral strength and asymmetry are consistent with select instances of unimanual projectile hunting in females, while differences in humeral A-P/mediolateral strength may reflect variation in butchery and processing of prey versus rowing and throwing behaviors.

Lack of archaeological and whole-genome diversity data has restricted current knowledge of the evolutionary history of donkeys. With the advancement of science and technology, the discovery of archaeological evidence, the development of molecular genetics, and the improvement of whole-genome sequencing technology, the in-depth understanding of the origin and domestication of donkeys has been enhanced, however. Given the lack of systematic research, the present study carefully screened and collected multiple academic papers and books, journals, and literature on donkeys over the past 15 years. The origin and domestication of donkeys are reviewed in this paper from the aspects of basic information, cultural origin, bioarcheology, mitochondrial and chromosomal microsatellite sequences, and whole-genome sequence comparison. It also highlights and reviews genome assembly technology, by assembling the genome of an individual organism and comparing it with related sample genomes, which can be used to produce more accurate results through big data statistics, analysis, and computational correlation models. Background: The donkey industry in the world and especially in China is developing rapidly, and donkey farming is transforming gradually from the family farming model to large-scale, intensive, and integrated industrial operations, which could ensure the stability of product quality and quantity. However, theoretical research on donkey breeding and its technical development lags far behind that of other livestock, thereby limiting its industrial development. This review provides holistic information for the donkey industry and researchers, that could promote theoretical research, genomic selection (GS), and reproductive management of the donkey population.

Natural sciences provide several modern methodologies that could be successfully applied in archaeological studies. In this pilot study, archaeological human remains from two Iron Age cemeteries (7th-twelfth centuries AD), Lejasbitēni and Čunkāni-Dreņģeri, which are located in different regions of Latvia, were studied. We applied ancient DNA (aDNA) and tooth enamel peptide analysis to determine the biological sex of the individuals. In addition, aDNA analysis was used to perform mtDNA haplogroup analysis. In most cases, the results of aDNA analysis regarding the biological sex of individuals coincided with the gender assigned based on grave orientation and grave goods. The results of sex determination using peptide analysis in all four individuals for whom data were available matched the possible gender. Of the 17 samples that had sufficient DNA for sequencing, seven samples had enough reads to perform mtDNA haplogroup analysis. The H2a2a, I4a1, H2a2a1, and H16c mtDNA haplogroups were identified in the individuals from the Lejasbitēni cemetery, while the T2b and K1a + 150 mtDNA haplogroups were identified in the individuals from the Čunkāni-Dreņģeri cemetery. Overall, the obtained results demonstrated the feasibility of applying aDNA and tooth enamel peptide analysis for biological sex determination within archaeological studies. The availability of human aDNA data will be highly useful for investigating the demographic history and social structures in Iron Age Latvia.

Increased cortical porosity is associated with a heightened risk of skeletal fragility due to bone loss and structural decay in adults. However, few studies have examined the etiology of cortical porosity in infants and children. This study examines whether age-related changes in femoral growth and locomotor development influence femoral midshaft cortical porosity in a sample of 48 individuals (fetal to 3.99 years) from the 10th-13th century cemetery of St. Étienne de Toulouse, France. Histological sections were prepared and imaged using light microscopy. Midshaft geometric variables such as total area, cortical area, and pore area were calculated using BoneJ. Increased porosity and cortical trabecularization were found to be significantly associated with age, being almost exclusively present in individuals aged 0.5-1.99 years. At approximately 6 months of age infants typically begin engaging in regular femoral loading and experience an acceleration in growth. The observed increase in midshaft porosity and trabecularization, therefore, likely results from the reorganization and redistribution of cortical bone, stimulated by increased growth velocity and the onset of weight-bearing activities. The reduction in cortical porosity and trabecularization in individuals aged 2.0-3.99 years indicates that children are approaching some sort of homeostasis as growth velocity slows and their femora adapt to consistent loading. Understanding what expected skeletal development looks like is necessary when conducting bioarcheological studies and this study provides evidence for a pattern of transient midshaft porosity during infancy and early childhood.

Human skeletal remains (HSR) are routinely excavated from archeological contexts and analyzed by experts in human osteology. Contrarily, HSR in medicolegal contexts are usually recovered by law enforcement officers and examined by pathologists with limited osteological training. To examine legal requirements for expertise, we reviewed laws in the United States regarding the recovery and analysis of HSR from archeological sites, unmarked graves, and medicolegal contexts. Of the 50 states, 19 (38%) have laws stating that an anthropologist with osteological training should be involved in the recovery or analysis of HSR from an archeological context. Fifteen of those 16 states have laws requiring a minimum level of education to be a qualified skeletal analyst. In contrast, only one state, Texas, requires an anthropologist who handles forensic cases to have a doctoral degree. Including Texas, only eight states (16%) have laws that encourage but do not mandate consultation with a forensic anthropologist for medicolegal skeletal cases. Louisiana and Washington have state-funded laboratories, expert forensic anthropologists, and effective protocols for handling forensic cases. Due process and human rights concerns at stake in criminal cases require that those recovering and analyzing modern HSR have an equal or higher level of expertise than those working with archeological remains. Yet, legislators assume that law enforcement and pathologists are adequately trained. Because court standards demand expert testimony based on accepted methodologies and standard levels of competency, forensic anthropologists have a professional responsibility to engage with lawmakers to draft legislation to ensure proper handling of all skeletal cases.