Leishmaniasis, a critical Neglected Tropical Disease caused by Leishmania protozoa, represents a significant global health risk, particularly in resource-limited regions. Conventional treatments are effective but suffer from serious limitations, such as toxicity, prolonged treatment courses, and rising drug resistance. Herein, we highlight the potential of inorganic nanomaterials as an innovative approach to enhance Leishmaniasis therapy, aligning with the One Health concept by considering these treatments\' environmental, veterinary, and public health impacts. By leveraging the adjustable properties of these nanomaterials─including size, shape, and surface charge, tailored treatments for various diseases can be developed that are less harmful to the environment and nontarget species. We review recent advances in metal-, oxide-, and carbon-based nanomaterials for combating Leishmaniasis, examining their mechanisms of action and their dual use as standalone treatments or drug delivery systems. Our analysis highlights a promising yet underexplored frontier in employing these materials for more holistic and effective disease management.

BACKGROUND: The leishmaniases are among the group of neglected tropical diseases that cause significant morbidity and mortality each year. Currently, the East Africa region has the highest visceral leishmaniasis burden in the world. Ethiopia is one of the East African countries that reports both visceral and cutaneous forms of the disease. As part of the Nairobi Declaration, Ethiopia showed commitment to the elimination of visceral leishmaniasis by 2030. In this endeavour, it is important to understand the scope of research conducted on leishmaniases in the country and identify where the research gaps exist. Determining the research landscape is vital in the plan towards leishmaniases control and elimination. It will help to reference conducted research, determine if systematic reviews are warranted and help prioritise future research directions.
METHODS: This protocol was developed with reference to the JBI Scoping Review Methodology Group\'s guidance on conducting scoping reviews and the PRISMA-ScR reporting guidelines for scoping reviews. The following databases will be searched: PubMed, Embase via Embase.com, Web of Science Core Collection, Cochrane CENTRAL, Global Index Medicus, ClinicalTrials.gov, the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry and PROSPERO. Locally published literature that may not be indexed in the above-mentioned systems will be identified through team members familiar with the setting. Each record will be dually and blindly reviewed in an abstract-title screen and full-text screen using inclusion-exclusion criteria. Included articles must contain an in-depth discussion of leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. Data extracted will consist of study themes, study types, and categories and subcategories each defined in the developed codebook, in addition to type of leishmania, year of publication, funding source and the number of citations. Results will be reported with summary statistics.
BACKGROUND: Individual consenting and ethical approvals are not applicable. We plan to disseminate our findings to the appropriate stakeholders.

In response to invading parasites, one of the principal arms of innate immunity is oxidative stress, caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, oxidative stresses play dual functions in the disease, whereby free radicals promote pathogen removal, but they can also trigger inflammation, resulting in tissue injuries. A growing body of evidence has strongly supported the notion that nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF) signaling is one of the main antioxidant pathways to combat this oxidative burst against parasites. Given the important role of NRF2 in oxidative stress, in this review, we investigate the activation mechanism of the NRF2 antioxidant pathway in different parasitic diseases, such as malaria, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis, schistosomiasis, entamoebiasis, and trichinosis.

Sauroleishmania spp. comprises one of the four Leishmania subgenera, which has been historically considered a non-pathogenic protozoan of reptiles. However, some strains appear to be transiently infective to mammals, and recent findings have detected these parasites in dogs and humans in areas where leishmaniasis is endemic. Herein, the digestion pattern of PCR-RFLP of the 234 bp-hsp70 fragment was evaluated as a simpler and cheaper tool to distinguish the Sauroleishmania species from the other Leishmania subgenera. As a result, the digestion of the 234 bp-hsp70 fragments with HaeIII produced a banding pattern specific to the four Sauroleishmania strains assessed. This technique could contribute to the identification of Leishmania parasites isolated from sandflies, reptiles, or even mammals in fieldworks as an alternative to the use of laborious and expensive methodologies.

Diseases such as those caused by feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukemia virus (FeLV) represent health problems for cats. Feline leishmaniasis (FL) has been reported in several cities across the country. The objective was to carry out a clinical-epidemiological and laboratory study of FIV, FeLV and FL in cats from shelters in Dourados, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Blood samples and swabs from the conjunctival and nasal mucosa were obtained from 75 cats, from four animal shelters. Serology for FIV and FeLV was performed. For Leishmania, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed on blood, conjunctiva and nasal mucosa. In the immunochromatographic serological test, seven cats tested positive for FIV and none for FeLV. No samples was positive in PCR for Leishmania. The study showed that despite the presence of human and canine leishmaniasis in the studied region, Leishmania spp. were absent in the cats studied. To avoid an increase in contagion in shelters, it is essential isolate cats with FIV.

Sand flies are vectors of great public health importance, since they constitute a group of hematophagous insects responsible for etiological agents transmission of zoonotic diseases such a visceral leishmaniasis. In face of the expansion of these diseases, efficient control strategies are needed which depend on comprehending the sand fly eco-epidemiology. In this regard, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry has been used for bacteria, fungi and yeast detection studies through peptide/protein profiles. However, little is known about interference of biological factors associated with vector ecology, such as blood meal preferences and even sand fly age on the peptide/protein profiles. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the differences in peptide/protein profiles of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis, by means of MALDI-TOF, due to the sand fly\'s age, sex, blood meal source and Leishmania infantum infection. Sample preparation was made removing both head and last abdomen segments keeping the thorax, its appendices and the rest of the abdomen. Five specimens per pool were used to obtain peptide/protein extract of which 1 μL solution was deposited over 1 μL MALDI matrix dried. Characteristic spectra were analyzed using principal coordinate analysis as well as indicator species analysis to discriminate differences in sand flies\'s peptide/protein profile by sex, age, blood meal source and L. infantum infection. The results show that the evaluated variables produced distinct peptide/protein profiles, demonstrated by the identification of specific diagnostic ions. It was found that the interference of biological factors should be taken into account when using the MALDI-TOF analysis of sand fly species identification and eco-epidemiological applications in field studies. Based on our results, we believe that it is possible to identify infected specimens and the source of blood meal in a collection of wild sand flies, serving to measure infectivity and understand the dynamics of the vector\'s transmission chain. Our results may be useful for epidemiological studies that look at the ecology of sand flies and leishmaniasis, as well as for raising awareness of biological characteristics\' impact on peptide/protein profiles in sand fly species identification.

Millions of people worldwide are affected by leishmaniasis, caused by the Leishmania parasite. Effective treatment is challenging due to the biological complexity of the parasite, drug toxicity, and increasing resistance to conventional drugs. To combat this disease, the development of specific strategies to target and selectively eliminate the parasite is crucial. This Review highlights the importance of amino acids in the developmental stages of Leishmania as a factor determining whether the infection progresses or is suppressed. It also explores the use of peptides as alternatives in parasite control and the development of novel targeted treatments. While these strategies show promise for more effective and targeted treatment, further studies to address the remaining challenges are imperative.

Protozoan parasites are major hazards to human health, society, and the economy, especially in equatorial regions of the globe. Parasitic diseases, including leishmaniasis, malaria, and others, contribute towards majority of morbidity and mortality. Around 1.1 million people die from these diseases annually. The lack of licensed vaccinations worsens the worldwide impact of these diseases, highlighting the importance of safe and effective medications for their prevention and treatment. However, the appearance of drug resistance in parasites continuously affects the availability of medications. The demand for novel drugs motivates global antiparasitic drug discovery research, necessitating the implementation of many innovative ways to maintain a continuous supply of promising molecules. Drug repurposing has come out as a compelling tool for drug development, offering a cost-effective and efficient alternative to standard de novo approaches. A thorough examination of drug repositioning candidates revealed that certain drugs may not benefit significantly from their original indications. Still, they may exhibit more pronounced effects in other disorders. Furthermore, certain medications can produce a synergistic effect, resulting in enhanced therapeutic effectiveness when given together. In this chapter, we outline the approaches employed in drug repurposing (sometimes referred to as drug repositioning), propose novel strategies to overcome these hurdles and fully exploit the promise of drug repurposing. We highlight a few major human protozoan diseases and a range of exemplary drugs repurposed for various protozoan infections, providing excellent outcomes for each disease.

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Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite female sand fly. The present work is characterized as a descriptive study in two areas: a forest area located in the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, and another urban area located in the municipality of Timóteo-MG, with the objective of identifying the presence of Leishmania spp. and the blood source of the collected female sand flies. Part of the females were obtained from the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, and part was collected using 19 ligth traps distributed in residences of Timóteo. For molecular studies of Leishmania spp. DNA, the ITS1 gene was used, and in the search for blood source, the CytB gene was used and positive samples were sequenced. The study demonstrated that there are at least three species of Leishmania circulating in the study areas: Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis, Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis, and Leishmania (V.) guyanensis. Nyssomyia whitmani was the predominant sand fly species in the urban area of Timóteo with a positive diagnosis for the presence of Leishmania braziliensis DNA. We found the presence of blood from Gallus gallus (Chicken) and Sus scrofa (Pig) in sand flies. The present study demonstrates that Leishmania braziliensis is the main agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the study area, with the effective participation of Nyssomyia whitmani as the vector and both Gallus gallus and Sus scrofa acting as a food source for female sand flies, and helping maintaining the sand fly life.