The re-emergence of human mpox with the multi-country outbreak and a recent report of borealpox (previously Alaskapox) resulting in one death has heightened awareness of the significance of the Poxviridae family and their zoonotic potential. This review examines various poxviruses affecting humans, with discussion of less commonly encountered Poxviridae members, including pathogenesis, epidemiology, and diagnostic methods. Poxvirus treatment is beyond the intended scope of this review and will not be discussed.

Parasitoid wasps are one of the most species-rich groups of animals on Earth, due to their ability to successfully develop as parasites of nearly all types of insects. Unlike most known parasitoid wasps that specialize towards one or a few host species, Diachasmimorpha longicaudata is a generalist that can survive within multiple genera of tephritid fruit fly hosts, including many globally important pest species. Diachasmimorpha longicaudata has therefore been widely released to suppress pest populations as part of biological control efforts in tropical and subtropical agricultural ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the role of a mutualistic poxvirus in shaping the host range of D. longicaudata across three genera of agricultural pest species: two of which are permissive hosts for D. longicaudata parasitism and one that is a nonpermissive host. We found that permissive hosts Ceratitis capitata and Bactrocera dorsalis were highly susceptible to manual virus injection, displaying rapid virus replication and abundant fly mortality. However, the nonpermissive host Zeugodacus cucurbitae largely overcame virus infection, exhibiting substantially lower mortality and no virus replication. Investigation of transcriptional dynamics during virus infection demonstrated hindered viral gene expression and limited changes in fly gene expression within the nonpermissive host compared with the permissive species, indicating that the host range of the viral symbiont may influence the host range of D. longicaudata wasps. These findings also reveal that viral symbiont activity may be a major contributor to the success of D. longicaudata as a generalist parasitoid species and a globally successful biological control agent.

Mpox (monkeypox) is a neglected tropical disease that has received increased attention since the multi-nation outbreak that began in 2022. The virus is endemic in West and Central Africa, where the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is the most affected country. Clade I monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection is endemic in the DRC and has an overall case fatality rate of 10.6% among children and adults. A study conducted in Sankuru Province, DRC, from 2007 to 2011 demonstrated that 75% of pregnant women with mpox had miscarriages or stillbirth. Further analysis of a stillborn fetus showed that MPXV could infect both the placenta and fetus, causing congenital infection. No additional cases of Clade I MPXV in pregnant women were reported until a new outbreak occurred in South Kivu Province during 2023 and 2024. Eight pregnant women having Clade I MPXV infection were identified, of whom four had either miscarriages or stillbirth, representing a 50% fetal mortality rate. These reports confirm previous data from the DRC that indicate the capability of Clade I MPXV to affect the fetus, causing congenital infection and fetal loss in a high percentage of cases. In this article, we review both past and new data from the DRC on the effects of Clade I MPXV during pregnancy and discuss the association of mpox with fetal loss.

Microtubule (MT)-dependent transport is a critical means of intracellular movement of cellular cargo by kinesin and dynein motors. MT-dependent transport is tightly regulated by cellular MT-associated proteins (MAPs) that directly bind to MTs and either promote or impede motor protein function. Viruses have been widely shown to usurp MT-dependent transport to facilitate their virion movement to sites of replication and/or for exit from the cell. However, it is unclear if viruses also negatively regulate MT-dependent transport. Using single-molecule motility and cellular transport assays, we show that the vaccinia virus (VV)-encoded MAP, A51R, inhibits kinesin-1-dependent transport along MTs in vitro and in cells. This inhibition is selective as the function of kinesin-3 is largely unaffected by VV A51R. Interestingly, we show that A51R promotes the perinuclear accumulation of cellular cargo transported by kinesin-1 such as lysosomes and mitochondria during infection. Moreover, A51R also regulates the release of specialized VV virions that exit the cell using kinesin-1-dependent movement. Using a fluorescently tagged rigor mutant of kinesin-1, we show that these motors accumulate on A51R-stabilized MTs, suggesting these stabilized MTs may form a \"kinesin-1 sink\" to regulate MT-dependent transport in the cell. Collectively, our findings uncover a new mechanism by which viruses regulate host cytoskeletal processes.

BACKGROUND: Two outbreaks of swinepox were investigated in free-range domestic pig farms located in the northeastern side of Sicily, Italy. The disease is generally self-limiting with a low mortality rate, but morbidity can reach high rates in case of poor sanitary conditions, improper husbandry practices and ectoparasitic infestation. The presented cases are the first ever reported on the island and part of the few cases reported in domestic pigs.
METHODS: Carcasses condemned at the slaughterhouse and deceased pigs from Farm A and Farm B respectively, were referred for post-mortem examination and further investigations, with a strong suspect of SwinePox virus (SWPV) infection. Twelve deceased pigs were examined in total, showing poor body condition and pustular lesions scattered all over the cutaneous surfaces. Moreover, pigs from Farm B showed ocular lesions classified from Grade I to IV (from mild conjunctivitis to severe keratoconjunctivitis with corneal oedema, opacity, and ulcers). Final diagnosis was pursued by the microscopic assessment of skin lesions in both farms, which revealed the typical SWPV-lesion appearance, such as severe and disseminated ulcerative dermatitis and suspected inclusion bodies multifocally observed in the epidermis. Moreover, negative staining Electron Microscopy (nsEM) was performed on skin lesions and ocular swabs from Farm B, revealing in two samples the presence of brick-shaped viral particles, 220 nm long and 160 nm wide, with irregularly arranged surface tubules, identified as SWPV. The gene encoding the 482-bp fragment of the virus late transcription factor-3 was detected by PCR and sequencing revealed 99.79% identity and 100% query-cover with a strain previously isolated in Germany. Field clinical assessment was then performed in Farm B, revealing high overcrowding, poor sanitary conditions and improper husbandry practices, which are relevant risk factors for SWPV transmission.
CONCLUSIONS: The present is the first case report of SWPV in free-range pigs raised in Sicily, an island of the Southern coast of Italy, and wants to raise awareness on a neglected disease, and cause of animal health and welfare issues.

Ankyrin repeat is a 33-amino acid motif commonly observed in eukaryotes and, to a lesser extent, in prokaryotes and archaea and rarely in viruses. This motif plays a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes like the cell cycle, transcription, cell signaling, and inflammatory responses through interactions between proteins. Poxviruses exhibit a distinctive feature of containing multiple ankyrin repeat proteins within their genomes. All the genera of poxviruses possess these proteins except molluscipox virus, crocodylidpox virus, and red squirrel poxvirus. An intriguing characteristic has generated notable interest in studying the functions of these proteins within poxvirus biology. Within poxviruses, ankyrin repeat proteins exhibit a distinct configuration, featuring ankyrin repeats in the N-terminal region and a cellular F-box homolog in the C-terminal region, which enables interactions with the cellular Skp, Cullin, F-box containing ubiquitin ligase complex. Through the examination of experimental evidences and discussions from current literature, this review elucidates the organization and role of ankyrin repeat proteins in poxviruses. Various research studies have highlighted the significant importance of these proteins in poxviral pathogenesis and, acting as factors that enhance virulence. Consequently, they represent viable targets for developing genetically altered viruses with decreased virulence, thus displaying potential as candidates for vaccines and antiviral therapeutic development contributing to safer and more effective strategies against poxviral infections.

Poxviruses have evolved a wide array of mechanisms to evade the immune response, and we provide an overview of the different immunomodulatory strategies. Poxviruses prevent the recognition of viral DNA that triggers the immune responses and inhibit signaling pathways within the infected cell. A unique feature of poxviruses is the production of secreted proteins that mimic cytokines and cytokine receptors, acting as decoy receptors to neutralize the activity of cytokines and chemokines. The capacity of these proteins to evade cellular immune responses by inhibiting cytokine activation is complemented by poxviruses\' strategies to block natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells, often through interfering with antigen presentation pathways. Mechanisms that target complement activation are also encoded by poxviruses. Virus-encoded proteins that target immune molecules and pathways play a major role in immune modulation, and their contribution to viral pathogenesis, facilitating virus replication or preventing immunopathology, is discussed.

UNASSIGNED: A double-stranded DNA virus called monkeypox virus (MPV) belonging to the Poxviridae family and Orthopoxvirus genus causes monkeypox (mpox) infection. This virus used to infect only Central, East, and West Africa. However, it has spread to an extent outside Africa recently. The range of MPV outbreaks was so high that on July 23, 2022, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared it a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). About a year later, the WHO notified the end of a global public health emergency for mpox on May 11, 2023. Here, we aimed to assess the current pathogenicity and potential risk of MPV causing public health emergencies.
UNASSIGNED: We searched information from published articles available in PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. We used monkeypox, mpox, monkeypox outbreak, and monkeypox virus as keywords during the literature search.
UNASSIGNED: Many new variants of MPV have emerged throughout the world that created PHEIC for mpox. Considering the low lethality and transmission rate, mpox is no longer a global public health threat. In addition, the availability of therapeutic and preventive measures helped the healthcare authorities fight the mpox infection in an efficient manner. In this review, we have portrayed the history and evolution of mpox from past to present and an idea of its future outcomes. Also, we have discussed the symptoms related to mpox and approved antiviral treatment strategies to fight off the infection in this piece. This review also emphasized the preventive guidelines set by the WHO for patients, caregivers, and healthcare providers to control the outbreak of mpox infection.
UNASSIGNED: We believe this article would give an idea about the potential public health threats of the recent multi-country monkeypox outbreak to the healthcare authorities for taking measures accordingly.

Historically, biological agents have been used to target various populations. One of the earliest examples could be the catastrophic effect of smallpox in Australia in the eighteenth century (as alleged by some historians). Modern biological techniques can be used to both create or provide protection against various agents of biological warfare. Any microorganism (viruses, bacteria, and fungi) or its toxins can be used as biological agents. Minnesota Department of Health has listed Smallpox (variola major) as a category A bioterrorism agent, even though it has been eradicated in 1980 through an extensive vaccination campaign. Category A agents are considered the highest risk to public health. Laboratory-associated outbreaks of poxviruses could cause unprecedented occupational hazards. Only two WHO-approved BSL-4 facilities in the United States and Russia are allowed to perform research on the variola virus. So, poxviruses present themselves as a classical case of a dual-use dilemma, since research with them can be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes. Although the importance of ethics in scientific research requires no further elaboration, ethical norms assume greater significance during experimentation with poxviruses. In this chapter, we will update the readers on the sensitive nature of conducting research with poxviruses, and how these viruses can be a source of potential biological weapons. Finally, specified ethical guidelines are explored to ensure safe research practices in virology.

Monkeypox has been endemic in Congo and Nigeria for at least five decades. Since early May 2022, there have been numerous unprecedented outbreaks throughout the world in places without any previously reported cases. While a majority of the diagnosed cases have been within Europe and the Americas, several cases have occurred in non-endemic African countries. As of December 2022, 82,999 cases had been reported globally, prompting concern among the World Health Organization (WHO) members. While the WHO has not labeled this epidemic a Global Health Emergency, member states have begun to put forward plans to consolidate their emergency vaccine stockpiles and share the limited number of vaccines made by the single FDA-approved manufacturer, Bavarian Nordic. Many countries are concerned about how vaccines will be shared. Some of the larger donor States are positioned to be the biggest beneficiaries of vaccine sharing, while States from areas that have been suffering from the virus since the 1970s have not been allocated any. This pattern of vaccine distribution echoes that seen during the early part of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the similarities between Monkeypox and Smallpox, contact precautions and vaccination seem to be effective strategies to combat its rapid spread. We aim to evaluate how an eradication program model similar to that used for Smallpox can be applied to Monkeypox, and whether it can address vaccine inequity. To do this, we use a multi-pronged approach targeting disease surveillance, vaccine awareness, manufacturing, cost, and distribution strategies.