Viticulture has been an important economic sector for centuries. In recent decades, global wine production has fluctuated between 250 and almost 300 million hectoliters, and in 2022, the value of wine exports reached EUR 37.6 billion. Climate change and the associated higher temperatures could favor the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in wine. OTA is a mycotoxin produced by some species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium and has nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic effects on animals and humans. The presence of this toxin in wine is related to the type of wine-red wines are more frequently contaminated with OTA-and the geographical location of the vineyard. In Europe, the lower the latitude, the greater the risk of OTA contamination in wine. However, climate change could increase the risk of OTA contamination in wine in other regions. Due to their toxic effects, the development of effective and environmentally friendly methods to prevent, decontaminate, and degrade OTA is essential. This review summarises the available research on biological aspects of OTA prevention, removal, and degradation.

Among cereal contaminants, mycotoxins are of concern due to their importance in terms of food and feed safety. The difficulty in establishing a diagnosis for mycotoxicosis relies on the fact that the effects are most often subclinical for chronic exposure and the most common scenario is multi-contamination by various toxins. Mycotoxin co-occurrence is a major food safety concern as additive or even synergic toxic impacts may occur, but also regarding current regulations as they mainly concern individual mycotoxin levels in specific foods and feed in the food chain. However, due to the large number of possible mycotoxin combinations, there is still limited knowledge on co-exposure toxicity data, which depends on several parameters. In this context, this systematic review aims to provide an overview of the toxic effects of two regulated mycotoxins, namely ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1. This review focused on the 2012-2022 period and analysed the occurrence in Europe of the selected mycotoxins in different food matrices (cereals and cereal-derived products), and their toxic impact, alone or in combination, on in vitro intestinal and hepatic human cells. To better understand and evaluate the associated risks, further research is needed using new approach methodologies (NAM), such as in vitro 3D models. KEY CONTRIBUTION: Cereals and their derived products are the most important food source for humans and feed for animals worldwide. This manuscript is a state of the art review of the literature over the last ten years on ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 mycotoxins in these products in Europe as well as their toxicological effects, alone and in combination, on human cells. Future perspectives and some challenges regarding the assessment of toxicological effects of mycotoxins are also discussed.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that are known to be associated with linear growth faltering because of their impact on inflammation, intestinal damage, inhibition of protein synthesis, and micronutrient absorption. In this narrative review, we aim to extend this analysis to further explore associations between mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes including deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, and fumonisins) and long-bone growth, particularly during the saltatory periods of development. Linear growth is a direct function of skeletal development and long-bone growth. We therefore explored biological pathways and mechanisms of impact of these toxins in both animal and human studies, in addition to the epidemiology literature (post-2020). Given what is known of the effects of individual and combinations of mycotoxins based on the animal literature, we have identified a need for further research and examination of how these toxins and exposures may be studied in humans to elucidate the downstream impact on bone-related biomarkers and anthropometric indices used to identify and predict stunting in population-based studies.

BACKGROUND: Mycotoxins have been reported to be present in medicinal plants. With the growing usage of medicinal plants, contamination of mycotoxins has emerged as one of the biggest threats to global food hygiene and ecological environment, posing a severe threat to human health.
OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine the mycotoxin prevalence and levels in medicinal plants and conduct a risk assessment by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis.
METHODS: A thorough search on Web of Science and PubMed was conducted for the last decade, resulting in 54 studies (meeting the inclusion criteria) with 2829 data items that were included in the meta-analysis.
RESULTS: The combined prevalence of mycotoxins in medicinal plants was 1.7% (95% confidence interval, CI = 1.1% - 2.4%), with a mean mycotoxin concentration in medicinal plants of 3.551 µg/kg (95% CI = 3.461 - 3.641 µg/kg). Risk assessment results indicated that aflatoxins and ochratoxin A found in several medicinal plants posed a health risk to humans; additionally, emerging enniatins exhibited possible health risks.
CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, the study underlines the need for establishing stringent control measures to reduce the severity of mycotoxin contamination in medicinal plants.

The purpose of this review was to investigate the current knowledge about aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) toxicity and the possible beneficial role of bioactive compounds by using in vitro and in vivo models. Although AFB1 and OTA were tested in a similar percentage, the majority of studies focused on nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, immune toxicity and neurotoxicity in which oxidative stress, inflammation, structural damage and apoptosis were the main mechanisms of action reported. Conversely, several biological compounds were assayed in order to modulate mycotoxins damage mainly in the liver, brain, kidney and immune system. Among them, pumpkin, curcumin and fermented whey were the most employed. Although a clear progress has been made by using in vivo models, further research is needed to assess not only the toxicity of multiple mycotoxins contamination but also the effect of functional compounds mixture, thereby reproducing more realistic situations for human health risk assessment.

This review explores the repercussions of mycotoxin contamination in food and feed, emphasising potential threats to agriculture, animal husbandry and public health. The primary objective is to make a comprehensive assessment of the neurotoxic consequences of mycotoxin exposure, an aspect less explored in current literature. Emphasis is placed on prominent mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone (ZEA) and ochratoxins, known for inducing acute and chronic diseases such as liver damage, genetic mutation and cancer. To elucidate the effects, animal studies were conducted, revealing an association between mycotoxin exposure and neurological damage. This encompasses impairments in learning and memory, motor alterations, anxiety and depression. The underlying mechanisms involve oxidative stress, disrupting the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant capacity. This oxidative stress is linked to neuronal damage, brain inflammation, neurochemical imbalance, and subsequent behavioural changes. The review underscores the need for preventive measures against mycotoxin exposure. While complete avoidance is ideal, exploration into the potential use of antioxidants as a viable solution is discussed, given the widespread contamination of many food products. Specifically, the protective role of natural compounds, such as polyphenols, is highlighted, showcasing their efficacy in mitigating mycotoxicosis in the central nervous system (CNS), as evidenced by findings in various animal models. In summary, countering mycotoxin-induced neurotoxicity requires a multifaceted approach. The identified natural compounds show promise, but their practical use hinges on factors like bioavailability, toxicity and understanding their mechanisms of action. Extensive research is crucial, considering the diverse responses to different mycotoxins and neurological conditions. Successful implementation relies on factors such as the specific mycotoxin(s) involved and achievable effective concentrations. Further research and clinical trials are imperative to establish the safety and efficacy of these compounds in practical applications.

Mycotoxins are a heterogeneous group of toxins produced by fungi that can grow in staple crops (e.g., maize, cereals), resulting in health risks due to widespread exposure from human consumption and inhalation. Dried blood spot (DBS), dried serum spot (DSS), and volumetric tip microsampling (VTS) assays were developed and validated for several important mycotoxins. This review summarizes studies that have developed these assays to monitor mycotoxin exposures in human biological samples and highlights future directions to facilitate minimally invasive sampling techniques as global public health tools. A systematic search of PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase (Elsevier), and CINAHL (EBSCO) was conducted. Key assay performance metrics were extracted to provide a critical review of the available methods. This search identified 11 published reports related to measuring mycotoxins (ochratoxins, aflatoxins, and fumonisins) using DBS/DSS and VTS assays. Multimycotoxin assays adapted for DBS/DSS and VTS have undergone sufficient laboratory validation for applications in large-scale population health and human biomonitoring studies. Future work should expand the number of mycotoxins that can be measured in multimycotoxin assays, continue to improve multimycotoxin assay sensitivities of several biomarkers with low detection rates, and validate multimycotoxin assays across diverse populations with varying exposure levels. Validated low-cost and ultrasensitive minimally invasive sampling methods should be deployed in human biomonitoring and public health surveillance studies to guide policy interventions to reduce inequities in global mycotoxin exposures.

The prevalence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in meat, edible offal, and meat products (MOP) was assessed through systematic review and meta-analysis. Four electronic databases were used to gather data from 1975 to September 15, 2022. Seventy-five articles comprising 8585 samples were identified and analyzed. The studies included in the analysis were conducted at a global level, with a predominant focus on Europe [72% (54/75)], Asia [13.33% (10/75)], Africa [13.33% (10/75)], and North America [1.33% (1/75)]. The overall prevalence of OTA in MOP was 39%. The highest and lowest prevalence percentages were recorded in Iraq (77%) and the USA (3%), respectively. Concerning food type, OTA prevalence was highest in the poultry gizzard (66%) and lowest in the cow liver (2%). The overall concentration of OTA in the MOP was 1.789 μg/kg. Poultry kidneys had the highest concentration of OTA (0.880-22.984 μg/kg), while pork had the lowest concentration (0.127-0.824 μg/kg). Conspicuous amounts of OTA contamination have been reported in fermented sausages. The lowest OTA concentration was found in Belgium (0.220 μg/kg) and the highest in Denmark (60.527μg/kg). These results can help food authorities minimize and control OTA in the MOP.

Traditional dry-cured hams are easily contaminated by toxigenic fungi during the fermentation and ripening stages. The detection and positive rates of ochratoxin A (OTA) are the highest among mycotoxins detected in traditional dry-cured hams, indicating that OTA in hams is a potential safety hazard to human health. This review addresses the mycotoxin-producing fungal species, the toxigenic conditions causing OTA contamination worldwide, the prevalence of OTA contamination in dry-cured hams, and the detection methods applied in OTA analysis. Additionally, this study introduces methods to prevent and control OTA in traditional dry-cured hams. The growth of common mycotoxin-producing fungi and the accumulation of mycotoxins in dry-cured ham can be controlled by a microbial starter. This review provides an important theoretical foundation for the research and control of OTA in traditional dry-cured hams.

The problem of residues of toxic contaminants in food products has assumed considerable importance in terms of food safety. Naturally occurring contaminants, such as mycotoxins, are monitored routinely in the agricultural and food industries. Unfortunately, the consequences of the presence of mycotoxins in foodstuffs are evident in livestock farms, where both subacute and chronic effects on animal health are observed and could have non-negligible effects on human health. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common mycotoxin that contaminates food and feeds. Due to its thermal stability, the eradication of OTA from the food chain is very difficult. Consequently, humans and animals are frequently exposed to OTA in daily life. In this review article, we will devote time to highlighting the redox-based nephrotoxicity that occurs during OTA intoxication. In the past few decades, the literature has improved on the main molecules and enzymes involved in the redox signaling pathway as well as on some new antioxidant compounds as therapeutic strategies to counteract oxidative stress. The knowledge shown in this work will address the use of nutraceutical substances as dietary supplements, which would in turn improve the prophylactic and pharmacological treatment of redox-associated kidney diseases during OTA exposure, and will attempt to promote animal feed supplementation.