AbstractClinical ethicists are routinely consulted in cases that involve conflicts and uncertainties related to surrogate decision-making for incapacitated patients. To navigate these cases, we invoke a canonical ethical-legal hierarchy of decision-making standards: the patient\'s known wishes, substituted judgment, and best interest. Despite the routine application of this hierarchy, however, critical scholarly literature alleges that these standards fail to capture patients\' preferences and surrogates\' behaviors. Moreover, the extent to which these critiques are incorporated into consultant practices is unclear. In this article I thus explore whether, and how, existing critiques of the hierarchy affect the application of these standards during ethics consults. After discussing four critiques of the hierarchy, I examine how two prominent published ethics consultation methodologies-bioethics mediation and CASES-incorporate these critiques differently. I then argue that while both methodologies explicitly endorse the same hierarchy, the varying degrees to which these four criticisms are incorporated into the prescribed consultation process could produce different applications of the same standard. I demonstrate with a case study how an ethics consultant following either methodology might produce two substantively different recommendations despite using the same substituted judgment standard. I conclude that while this heterogeneity of application should not dismantle the hierarchy\'s status as field-wide canon, it complicates projects of professional ethics consultation consensus building.

Wisdom is the hallmark of social judgment, but how people across cultures recognize wisdom remains unclear-distinct philosophical traditions suggest different views of wisdom\'s cardinal features. We explore perception of wise minds across 16 socio-economically and culturally diverse convenience samples from 12 countries. Participants assessed wisdom exemplars, non-exemplars, and themselves on 19 socio-cognitive characteristics, subsequently rating targets\' wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. Analyses reveal two positively related dimensions-Reflective Orientation and Socio-Emotional Awareness. These dimensions are consistent across the studied cultural regions and interact when informing wisdom ratings: wisest targets-as perceived by participants-score high on both dimensions, whereas the least wise are not reflective but moderately socio-emotional. Additionally, individuals view themselves as less reflective but more socio-emotionally aware than most wisdom exemplars. Our findings expand folk psychology and social judgment research beyond the Global North, showing how individuals perceive desirable cognitive and socio-emotional qualities, and contribute to an understanding of mind perception.

UNASSIGNED: Situational Judgement Tests (SJT) are a cost-efficient method for the assessment of personal characteristics (e.g., empathy, professionalism, ethical thinking) in medical school admission. Recently, complex open-ended response format SJTs have become more feasible to conduct. However, research on their applicability to a German context is missing. This pilot study tests the acceptability, reliability, subgroup differences, and validity of an online SJT with open-ended response format developed in Canada (\"Casper\").
UNASSIGNED: German medical school applicants and students from Hamburg were invited to take Casper in 2020 and 2021. The test consisted of 12 video- and text-based scenarios, each followed by three open-ended questions. Participants subsequently evaluated their test experience in an online survey. Data on sociodemographic characteristics, other admission criteria (Abitur, TMS, HAM-Nat, HAM-SJT) and study success (OSCE) was available in a central research database (stav).
UNASSIGNED: The full sample consisted of 582 participants. Test-takers\' global perception of Casper was positive. Internal consistency was satisfactory in both years (α=0.73; 0.82) while interrater agreement was moderate (ICC(1,2)=0.54). Participants who were female (d=0.37) or did not have a migration background (d=0.40) received higher scores. Casper scores correlated with HAM-SJT (r=.18) but not with OSCE communication stations performance. The test was also related to Abitur grades (r=-.15), the TMS (r=.18), and HAM-Nat logical reasoning scores (r=.23).
UNASSIGNED: This study provides positive evidence for the acceptability, internal consistency, and convergent validity of Casper. The selection and training of raters as well as the scenario content require further observation and adjustments to a German context to improve interrater reliability and predictive validity.
UNASSIGNED: Situational Judgement Tests (SJTs) sind eine kosteneffiziente Methode zur Beurteilung von persönlichen Eigenschaften (z.B. Empathie, Professionalität, ethisches Denken) bei der Zulassung zum Medizinstudium. Die Durchführung komplexer SJTs mit offenem Antwortformat ist in jüngster Zeit einfacher geworden. Es fehlen jedoch Untersuchungen zu ihrer Anwendbarkeit im deutschen Kontext. Diese Pilotstudie testet die Akzeptanz, Reliabilität, Subgruppenunterschiede und Validität eines in Kanada entwickelten Online-SJTs mit offenem Antwortformat („Casper“).
UNASSIGNED: Studienbewerber*innen aus Deutschland und Medizinstudierende aus Hamburg wurden eingeladen, Casper in den Jahren 2020 und 2021 zu absolvieren. Der Test bestand aus 12 video- und textbasierten Szenarien, auf die jeweils drei offene Fragen folgten. Die Teilnehmenden bewerteten anschließend ihre Testerfahrung in einer Online-Umfrage. Daten zu soziodemografischen Merkmalen, weiteren Zulassungskriterien (Abitur, TMS, HAM-Nat, HAM-SJT) und zum Studienerfolg (OSCE) waren in einer zentralen Forschungsdatenbank (stav) verfügbar.
UNASSIGNED: Die Gesamtstichprobe bestand aus 582 Teilnehmenden. Die allgemeine Wahrnehmung von Casper durch die Testteilnehmenden war positiv. Die interne Konsistenz war in beiden Jahren zufriedenstellend (α=0,73; 0,82), während die Interrater-Übereinstimmung mäßig war (ICC(1,2)=0,54). Weibliche Teilnehmerinnen (d=0,37) oder Teilnehmende ohne Migrationshintergrund (d=0,40) erzielten höhere Testwerte. Die Casper Testwerte korrelierten mit dem HAM-SJT (r=.18), aber nicht mit der Leistung in OSCE-Kommunikationsstationen. Der Test zeigte auch Zusammenhänge mit der Abiturnote (r=-.15), dem TMS (r=.18) und dem HAM-Nat-Subtest für logisches Denken (r=.23).
UNASSIGNED: Die Studie liefert positive Belege für die Akzeptanz, interne Konsistenz und konvergente Validität von Casper. Die Auswahl und Schulung der Beurteiler*innen sowie die Inhalte der Szenarien bedürfen weiterer Untersuchungen und Anpassungen an den deutschen Kontext, um die Interrater-Reliabilität und prädiktive Validität zu verbessern.

Crowdsourcing deals with solving problems by assigning them to a large number of non-experts called crowd using their spare time. In these systems, the final answer to the question is determined by summing up the votes obtained from the community. The popularity of these systems has increased by facilitating access for community members through mobile phones and the Internet. One of the issues raised in crowdsourcing is how to choose people and how to collect answers. Usually, users are separated based on their performance in a pre-test. Designing the pre-test for performance calculation is challenging; The pre-test questions should be selected to assess characteristics in individuals that are relevant to the main questions. One of the ways to increase the accuracy of crowdsourcing systems is by considering individuals\' cognitive characteristics and decision-making models to form a crowd and improve the estimation of their answer accuracy to questions. People can estimate the correctness of their responses while making a decision. The accuracy of this estimate is determined by a quantity called metacognition ability. Metacoginition is referred to the case where the confidence level is considered along with the answer to increase the accuracy of the solution. In this paper, by both mathematical and experimental analysis, we would answer the following question: Is it possible to improve the performance of a crowdsourcing system by understanding individuals\' metacognition and recording and utilizing users\' confidence in their answers?

Four experiments examined human ratings of causal effectiveness, and ability to detect causal relationships, in a nonverbal paradigm. Participants responded on a concurrent random interval, extinction schedule. In the presence of one stimulus, responses produced an outcome (triangle flash); in the presence of the other stimulus, they did not. Following making a judgment of causal effectiveness, two further stimuli were presented simultaneously with one another, and participants had to select one depending on which of the previous two stimuli were associated with effective responses. In all experiments, immediate outcomes were associated with higher causal ratings and better causal detection than outcomes delayed by 3 s. A signal inserted between response and outcome improved ratings and detection (Experiments 2 and 4), even when it was contiguous with the response but not the outcome (Experiments 2 and 3). Stimuli associated with both components (marking cues) did not impact judgments or detection (Experiment 3). Stimuli signaling the availability of an outcome if a response was made (signaled reinforcement) did not improve causal judgments, but did improve detection of stimuli associated with the outcome (Experiment 4). Responses during the delay interfered with detection of the actual relationship when delays were unsignaled (Experiments 1-4), but not with fully or briefly signaled delays (Experiments 2-4), or with signaled reinforcement (Experiment 4). The results suggest a delay stimulus serves to signal the response has been successful and demark the delay period by serving a discriminative function. These findings mirror those seen in nonhuman conditioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Counterfactual theories propose that people\'s capacity for causal judgment depends on their ability to consider alternative possibilities: The lightning strike caused the forest fire because had it not struck, the forest fire would not have ensued. To accommodate a variety of psychological effects on causal judgment, a range of recent accounts have proposed that people probabilistically sample counterfactual alternatives from which they compute a graded measure of causal strength. While such models successfully describe the influence of the statistical normality (i.e., the base rate) of the candidate and alternate causes on causal judgments, we show that they make further untested predictions about how normality influences people\'s confidence in their causal judgments. In a large (N = 3,020) sample of participants in a causal judgment task, we found that normality indeed influences people\'s confidence in their causal judgments and that these influences were predicted by a counterfactual sampling model in which people are more confident in a causal relationship when the effect of the cause is less variable among imagined counterfactual possibilities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Past research on advice-taking has suggested that people are often insensitive to the level of advice independence when combining forecasts from advisors. However, this has primarily been tested for cases in which people receive numeric forecasts. Recent work by Mislavsky and Gaertig (2022) shows that people sometimes employ different strategies when combining verbal versus numeric forecasts about the likelihood of future events. Specifically, likelihood judgments based on two verbal forecasts (e.g., \"rather likely\") are more often extreme (relative to the forecasts) than are likelihood judgments based on two numeric forecasts (e.g., \"70% probability\"). The goal of the present research was to investigate whether advice-takers\' use of combination strategies can be sensitive to advice independence when differences in independence are highly salient and whether sensitivity to advice independence depends on the format in which advice is given. In two studies, we found that advice-takers became more extreme with their own likelihood estimate when combining forecasts from advisors who use separate evidence, as opposed to the same evidence. We also found that two verbal forecasts generally resulted in more extreme combined likelihood estimates than two numeric forecasts. However, the results did not suggest that sensitivity to advice independence depends on the format of advice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Political misinformation poses a major threat to democracies worldwide, often inciting intense disputes between opposing political groups. Despite its central role for informed electorates and political decision making, little is known about how aware people are of whether they are right or wrong when distinguishing accurate political information from falsehood. Here, we investigate people\'s metacognitive insight into their own ability to detect political misinformation. We use data from a unique longitudinal study spanning 12 waves over 6 months that surveyed a representative U.S. sample (N = 1,191) on the most widely circulating political (mis)information online. Harnessing signal detection theory methods to model metacognition, we found that people from both the political left and the political right were aware of how well they distinguished accurate political information from falsehood across all news. However, this metacognitive insight was considerably lower for Republicans and conservatives-than for Democrats and liberals-when the information in question challenged their ideological commitments. That is, given their level of knowledge, Republicans\' and conservatives\' confidence was less likely to reflect the correctness of their truth judgments for true and false political statements that were at odds with their political views. These results reveal the intricate and systematic ways in which political preferences are linked to the accuracy with which people assess their own truth discernment. More broadly, by identifying a specific political asymmetry-for discordant relative to concordant news-our findings highlight the role of metacognition in perpetuating and exacerbating ideological divides. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

BACKGROUND: Previous research has shown that mindfulness is associated with slower passage of time in everyday life, and with lower self-reported time pressure. This study investigates some of the potential mechanisms behind these relationships.
METHODS: 318 participants submitted their responses to an online survey which collected data regarding passage of time judgments, time pressure, trait mindfulness, temperament, task load, and metacognitions about time. Using commonality and dominance analyses, we explored how these variables contributed, either alone or jointly, to predicting how fast (or slow) time seems to pass for participants, or how pressed for time they felt.
RESULTS: Mindfulness and temperament had some overlaps in their ability to predict passage of time judgments and time pressure for durations at the month and 2-month scales. The temperamental trait of extraversion/surgency, as well as the Non-judging and Non-reacting facets of mindfulness were among the best predictors of passage of time judgments and time pressure. Attention-related variables were mainly related to time perception via their involvement in joint effects with other variables. Results also suggested that metacognitions about time interacted with other variables in predicting passage of time judgments, but only at the month scale. Finally, among all the variables included in this study, task load had the highest degree of involvement in predictions of self-reported time pressure at the week and month scales, but it contributed relatively little to predicting passage of time judgments.
CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that mindfulness relates to passage of time through its involvement in inferential processes. The data also shows how different factors are related to PoTJ at different time scales. Finally, results suggest the existence of both similarities and differences in how passage of time and time pressure relate to the other included variables.

UNASSIGNED: Child pedestrian injuries represent a significant public health challenge. Understanding the most complex cognitive skills required to cross streets helps us understand, improve, and protect children in traffic, as underdeveloped cognitive skill likely impacts children\'s pedestrian safety. One complex component of street-crossing is the cognitive-perceptual task of judging time-to-arrival of oncoming traffic. We examined capacity of 7- and 8-year-olds to judge time-to-arrival for vehicles approaching from varying distances and speeds, as well as improvement in those judgments following intensive street-crossing training in a virtual reality (VR) pedestrian simulator.
UNASSIGNED: 500 seven- and eight-year-olds participated in a randomized trial evaluating use of a large kiosk VR versus smartphone-based VR headset to teach street-crossing skills. Prior to randomization into VR training condition and also prior to initiation of any training, children engaged in a video-based vehicle approach estimation task to assess ability to judge traffic time-to-arrival. They then engaged in multiple VR-based pedestrian safety training sessions in their randomly assigned condition until achieving adult functioning. Soon after training and again 6 months later, children repeated the vehicle estimation task.
UNASSIGNED: Prior to randomization or training, children were more accurate judging time to arrival for closer versus farther traffic, and rapidly-moving versus slower-moving traffic, but those results were subsumed by a speed x distance interaction. The interaction suggested distance cues were used more prominently than speed cues, and speed had varying effects at different distances. Training group had minimal effect on learning and all children became significantly better at judging vehicle arrival times following training.
UNASSIGNED: Children tend to underestimate vehicle arrival times. Distance cues are more impactful on time-to-arrival judgments than speed cues, but children\'s estimations based both on manipulations of vehicle speed and manipulations of vehicle distance improved post-training. Improvements were retained six months later. This finding is consistent with psychophysics research suggesting vehicle approach judgments rely on optical size and looming, which are impacted both by vehicle speeds and distances. Implementation of VR-based training for child pedestrian safety is recommended, as it may improve children\'s judgment of vehicle time-to-arrival, but it must be conducted cautiously to avoid iatrogenic effects.