Over the past 75 years modern medicine has advanced in its ability to diagnose and treat many diseases. However, the medical profession\'s ability to prognosticate the course and outcome of an illness has not satisfied the needs of many patients. Physicians must not lose the ability, or desire, to consider the whole person in relation to a patient\'s disease. We need to ask ourselves what person has the disease, not what disease the person has. Here I endeavor to demonstrate why Hippocrates valued prognostication highly, how its importance may have faded from the consciousness of current medical practice, and how modern technology is attempting to reinvent or revise it.

Hippocrates\' teaching on the ethical and moral values of medicine have captivated physicians, scholars, and historians for over twenty-five centuries, enduring despite the challenges of applying moral guidance across diverse cultures. At the core of Hippocratic ethics is the human relationship between the physician and the patient, with an emphasis on the physician\'s responsibility to assess potential harm involved in any attempt to heal. The Hippocratic principle \"to help, or at least to do no harm\" remains as relevant today as it was 2,500 years ago. In the modern context, it serves as a deontological imperative, reminding physicians to evaluate the risks of harm associated with any healing attempt. This concept aligns with the ethical principles of beneficence and non-maleficence, which are at the heart of Hippocratic medical ethics with timeless significance.

The chapter begins with also an outline of the characteristics of four surgeons who changed the direction of thinking and hence of practice. This is followed by a review of the changing ideas which governed surgical practice. Chapter \"Two surgical instruments\" by Jeremy C. Ganz has examined the uses of drills and lenticulars. In this chapter there is an appraisal of the other instruments used during cranial surgery and how their use related to changing ideas. Finally, there is a concluding section which ties all these elements together.

The chapter begins with a review of some of the background thinking during Hippocrates time. The brain was considered to be the location of the soul which was the essence of subjective experience. However, this was not a brain function as such but rather a location where the pneuma reacted with the soul. Hippocrates\' monograph on cranial trauma begins with a description of the bones and sutures. He then systematized the classification of cranial injury. He sensibly advised accurate diagnosis into one of the types of injury he described and supported extension of any skin opening to facilitate diagnosis of the bone, the injury of which was his primary concern. His description of operative technique has rarely been surpassed, placing emphasis on care and methods for the avoidance of further injury. He also emphasized the importance of probing during trepanation to avoid damaging the dura and underlying brain. In addition, he insisted on using water to cool the trepan. All of this was positive. However, the respect in which he was held in subsequent generations meant that two albeit understandable errors were perpetuated. The first error was the use of prophylactic trepanation to permit the drainage of the pus which he believed would inevitably develop under a fissure. The second was to avoid trepanning at sutures, the reasons for which proscription are not clearly stated. In conclusion, it may be noted that what limited reporting of results is available demonstrates that Hippocrates trepanations were largely not successful.

Hippocrates, an influential figure in ancient Greek medicine, is best known for his lasting contribution, the Hippocratic Oath, which includes a significant message about obstetrics and gynecology. Given the Oath\'s status as a widely regarded ethical code for medical practice, it requires critical evaluation. The message of the Oath, as it related to obstetrics and gynecology, is expressed in ancient Greek by the phrase \"οὐδὲ γυναικὶ πεσσὸν φθόριον δώσω\" which translates directly to \"I will not give to any woman a harming pessary.\" The words fetus and abortion were not present in the original Greek text of the Oath. Yet, this message of the Hippocratic Oath has been interpreted often as a prohibition against abortion. In this article, we present a critical linguistic and historical analysis and argue against the notion that the Hippocratic Oath was prohibiting abortion. We provide evidence that the words \"foetum\" (fetus) and \"abortu\" (abortion) were inserted in the Latin translations of the Oath, which then carried on in subsequent English versions. The addition of the words \"fetus\" and \"abortion\" in the Latin translations significantly altered the Oath\'s original meaning. Unfortunately, these alterations in the translation of the Hippocratic Oath have been accepted over the years because of cultural, religious, and social reasons. We assert that because the original Hippocratic Oath did not contain language related to abortion, it should not be construed as prohibiting it. The interpretation of the Oath should be based on precise and rigorous translation and speculative interpretations should be avoided.

OBJECTIVE: Which theoretical and practical competences do the dermatological case histories of the Hippocratic Corpus convey?
METHODS: The 431 Hippocratic case histories have been studied for reports and communication on diagnostics, therapy and prognosis of individuals and groups of patients suffering from skin diseases.
RESULTS: Within the seven books of the Hippocratic \'Epidemics\', a total of 49 patients with dermatological symptoms are described; in 20 of these, skin disease was the leading suffering. The essential clinical signs were itching, red spots, blisters, pustules, aphthae, lichen, dandruff and hair loss. Most patients were male; one of the four women was pregnant, among the two children was a baby whose skin disease ended fatally. Eight patients were named. In addition, five waves of disease are reported, in the course of which the shape of the skin played an important role. The diagnostic workup was limited to inspection and palpation, but included the determination of the level of suffering. The follow-up checks often extended over months. Mostly, plasters and compresses with grain flour were primarily used for treatment.
CONCLUSIONS: The Hippocratic doctor observed and described a large number of skin lesions and attempted to classify them in the differential diagnosis. In addition to changes in the color and tension of the skin, numerous lesions-for which the names are still often used in modern dermatology-are also described in detail. The skin manifestations associated with fever and abdominal symptoms are counted among the epidemic diseases. The condition of the skin was often regarded as an indicator of general health. In the case reports, conservative treatment adapted to the development of the disease dominated. In desperate cases, bloodletting was chosen as a last resort.
UNASSIGNED: FRAGESTELLUNG: Welche theoretische und praktische Fachkompetenz vermitteln die dermatologischen Kasuistiken des Corpus Hippocraticum?
METHODS: Die 431 hippokratischen Kasuistiken wurden auf Berichte und Kommentare zu Diagnostik, Therapie und Prognose von Erkrankungen der Haut bei Einzelpersonen und Gruppen von Patienten untersucht.
UNASSIGNED: In den 7 Büchern der hippokratischen „Epidemien“ werden insgesamt 49 Kranke mit dermatologischen Symptomen beschrieben; bei 20 ist die Hauterkrankung das führende Leiden. Die wesentlichen Krankheitszeichen waren Juckreiz, rote Flecken, Blasen, Pusteln, Aphthen, Flechten, Schuppen und Haarausfall. Die Mehrzahl der Patienten war männlichen Geschlechts. Unter den 4 Frauen war eine Schwangere, unter den 2 Kindern ein Baby, dessen Hautleiden tödlich endete; 8 Kranke werden beim Namen genannt. Außerdem wird über 5 Krankheitswellen berichtet, in deren Verlauf die Affektion der Haut eine wesentliche Rolle spielte. Die Diagnostik beschränkte sich auf Inspektion und Palpation, schloss jedoch die Ermittlung des Leidensdrucks ein. Die Verlaufskontrollen erstreckten sich vielfach über Monate. Zur Behandlung verwendete man in erster Linie feuchte Pflaster und Umschläge mit Getreidemehl.
CONCLUSIONS: Der hippokratische Arzt hat eine große Zahl von Effloreszenzen beobachtet, beschrieben und differenzialdiagnostisch einzuordnen versucht. Neben Veränderungen der Farbe und des Spannungszustands der Haut wird eine Reihe von Läsionen, deren Bezeichnungen in der modernen Dermatologie erhalten geblieben sind, im Detail beschrieben. Die mit Fieber und abdominellen Symptomen verbundenen Hauterkrankungen wurden zu den epidemischen Erkrankungen gerechnet. Man betrachtete den Status der Haut daher vielfach als Indikator des allgemeinen Gesundheitszustands. In den Fallberichten dominiert die der Entwicklung der Erkrankung angepasste konservative Therapie. In verzweifelten Fällen entschied man sich für die Phlebotomie.

Achieving a good outcome for a person with Psoriatic Arthritis (PsA) is made difficult by late diagnosis, heterogenous clinical disease expression and in many cases, failure to adequately suppress inflammatory disease features. Single-centre studies have certainly contributed to our understanding of disease pathogenesis, but to adequately address the major areas of unmet need, multi-partner, collaborative research programmes are now required. HIPPOCRATES is a 5-year, Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI) programme which includes 17 European academic centres experienced in PsA research, 5 pharmaceutical industry partners, 3 small-/medium-sized industry partners and 2 patient-representative organizations. In this review, the ambitious programme of work to be undertaken by HIPPOCRATES is outlined and common approaches and challenges are identified. It is expected that, when completed, the results will ultimately allow for changes in the approaches to diagnosing, managing and treating PsA allowing for better short-term and long-term outcomes.
Improving outcomes in Psoriatic Arthritis Psoriatic Arthritis (PsA) is a form of arthritis which is found in approximately 30% of people who have the skin condition, Psoriasis. Frequently debilitating and progressive, achieving a good outcome for a person with PsA is made difficult by late diagnosis, disease clinical features and in many cases, failure to adequately control features of inflammation. Research studies from individual centres have certainly contributed to our understanding of why people develop PsA but to adequately address the major areas of unmet need, multi-centre, collaborative research programmes are now required. HIPPOCRATES is a 5-year, Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI) programme which includes 17 European academic centres experienced in PsA research, 5 pharmaceutical industry partners, 3 small-/medium-sized industry partners and 2 patient representative organisations (see appendix). In this review, the ambitious programme of work to be undertaken by HIPPOCRATES is outlined and common approaches and challenges are identified. The participation of patient research partners in all stages of the work of HIPPOCRATES is highlighted. It is expected that, when completed, the results will ultimately allow for changes in the approaches to diagnosing, managing and treating PsA allowing for improvements in short-term and long-term outcomes.

Though the Hippocratic text On the Heart has garnered significant attention in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries from classicists, physicians and historians of medicine alike, no commentary on this important work currently exists. There remain, however, central questions of interpretation concerning a number of important points: in particular, how the author understands the structure and functioning of the heart.The significance of this text for the history of cardiovascular medicine can be found first in its position as being radically advanced in its portrayal of the inner structure of the heart when compared with any other Hippocratic text. At the same time, the text falls dramatically short of the discoveries of the Alexandrian researchers who studied during the Hellenistic period-that is, around the same period as this text\'s likely composition. In addition, this work contains the first extant description of the valves of the heart, and its detailed descriptions of a cuspid valve and the chordae tendineae have led several scholars to imagine that this text even contains evidence of either a systematic dissection of an animal heart or-what seems impossible outside of Alexandria, Egypt at that time-evidence of the dissection of a human heart.This article intends to provide a full commentary on the text by consolidating, and in some cases correcting, previous interpretive attempts to understand an often referenced, and at times misinterpreted, ancient medical treatise.

Intermittent fever is a historical diagnosis with a contested meaning. Historians have associated it with both benign malaria and severe epidemics during the Early Modern Era and early nineteenth century. Where other older medical diagnoses perished under changing medical paradigms, intermittent fever \'survived\' into the twentieth century. This article studies the development in how intermittent fever was framed in Denmark between 1826 and 1886 through terminology, clinical symptoms and aetiology. In the 1820s and 1830s, intermittent fever was a broad disease category, which the diagnosis \'koldfeber\'. Danish physicians were inspired by Hippocratic teachings in the early nineteenth century, and patients were seen as having unique constitutions. For that reason, intermittent fevers presented itself as both benign and severe with a broad spectrum of clinical symptoms. As the Parisian school gradually replaced humoral pathology in the mid-nineteenth century, intermittent fever and koldfeber became synonymous for one disease condition with a nosography that resembles modern malaria. The nosography of intermittent fever remained consistent throughout the second half of the nineteenth century. Although intermittent fever was conceptualized as caused by miasmas throughout most of the nineteenth century, the discovery of the Plasmodium parasite in 1880 led to a change in the conceptualization of what miasmas were. The article concludes that the development of how intermittent fever was framed follows the changing scientific paradigms that shaped Danish medicine in the nineteenth century.

Accurate and consistent medical terminology has a fundamental value in medicine. It enables medical students to understand the meaning of each term, medical physicians to communicate with each other, and it also enables science to adopt a logical language of high-level understanding and scientific regularity. Medical terminology inexpediencies caused by the adoption of etymologically illogical or linguistically false terms lead to misunderstanding and confusion among clinicians. The medical terms epidemic and pandemic are as old as Hippocrates and Sophocles, respectively. The present article evaluates the new medical terms tripledemic and triple epidemic, which were introduced during the recent COVID-19 pandemic.