Objective: To investigate the efficacy and safety of oral testosterone therapy in individuals diagnosed with androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS). Methods: A self-controlled study design was utilized, focusing on individuals with AIS who were genetically diagnosed at the Department of Endocrinology, Genetics, and Metabolism of Beijing Children\'s Hospital between 2009 and 2021. These patients underwent treatment involving the administration of testosterone. The primary observed indexes include the measurement of penis length, which should meet the minimal surgical standard (penis length≥2.5 cm) or greater than or equal to -2.5 s (lower limit of normal). Secondary observed indexes include penile length standard deviation score (PL-SDS), an increase in penis longitude (ΔPL), medication dosage, the course of therapy, and safety indicators, among others. There were 4 courses of treatment. After each course, patients were evaluated to determine whether termination of treatment was appropriate. Patients who exhibited inadequate post-treatment penile length growth were advised to continue with further treatment. The statistical methodology included t-test, and a Wilcoxon rank sum test to describe efficacy and safety. The patients were followed up until 2023. Results: The study comprised a total of 51 individuals with AIS, comprising 33 males and 18 females (gender of registered permanent residence). Among these patients, 10 were diagnosed with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) and 41 were diagnosed with partial androgen insensitive syndrome (PAIS). There were 2 children with CAIS were diagnosed by doctors and prescribed testosterone undecanoate, but the children did not really take medicine.The penile length of CAIS patients could not be measured (penile length<0.5 cm) before and after treatment. For PAIS patients, baseline penile length and PL-SDS were (2.3±0.6) cm and -3.7±1.3, respectively. The measurements for penile length and PL-SDS after each treatment course were recorded as follows: (2.7±0.8), (2.8±0.6), (2.6±0.4), (2.6±0.4) cm and -2.8±1.6, 2.5±1.6, 2.9±1.2, -3.2±0.9, respectively. Both penile length and PL-SDS interventions showed statistically significant gains when compared to the baseline performance of the 4 courses (t=4.05、3.56、2.55、2.23 and 3.88、3.50、2.50、2.19, all P<0.05). Before treatment, 13 PAIS patients (32%) reached 2.5 cm and seven (17%) reached greater than or equal to -2.5 s. Following the initial, subsequent, third, and fourth therapeutic interventions, 18 cases (44%), 24 cases (59%), 25 cases (61%), and 26 cases (63%) reached 2.5 cm, respectively. Additionally, A total of 12 cases (29%), 15 cases (37%), 20 cases (49%), and 21 cases (51%), respectively, were found to reach greater than or equal to -2.5 s. The study involved the longitudinal monitoring of patients with the highest recorded age being 13.7 years. The weight, height, body mass index, bone age/age, cholesterol, hemoglobin and so on were all within the normal range and the difference were not statistically significant (all P>0.05). All 49 patients were no abnormalities in blood electrolyte, liver and kidney function and thyroid function and no changes in precocious puberty, pubic hair growth, aggressive behavior, vulvar skin darkening, diarrhea or other conditions. Conclusions: Testosterone undecanote in children with CAIS was no effective. The initial course of treatment for patients with PAIS demonstrates observable enhancements in penile length and PL-SDS. For patients with inadequate penile length growth, continued treatment in subsequent courses (such as the second, third, and fourth courses) is recommended toenhance outcomes gradually. Testosterone undecanoate was safe and effective for the majority of individuals with PAIS patients, with few adverse effects and good treatment tolerance.
目的： 探讨雄激素不敏感综合征（AIS）患儿口服十一酸睾酮治疗的效果及安全性。 方法： 采用自身前后对照研究设计。选取2009至2021年在北京儿童医院内分泌遗传代谢门诊基因确诊的51例AIS患儿为研究对象。采用口服十一酸睾酮治疗。主要观察指标为阴茎长度达到最低手术标准（≥2.5 cm）或停药标准（≥-2.5 s）。次要观察指标为阴茎长度标准差积分（PL-SDS）、阴茎长度增长（ΔPL）、用药剂量、疗程、安全性指标等。共4个疗程，每个疗程结束后评估患儿是否可以停药，阴茎长度增长欠佳患儿继续服药。采用配对样本t检验、Wilcoxon秩和检验进行比较，分析疗效和安全性。疗程结束后对患儿继续随访至2023年。 结果： 51例AIS患儿中男33例、女18例（户口性别），其中10例诊断完全型AIS（CAIS），41例诊断部分型AIS（PAIS）。CAIS患儿阴茎长度治疗前后均“无法测量”（阴茎长度<0.5 cm）。PAIS基线阴茎长度和PL-SDS分别为（2.3±0.6）cm和-3.7±1.3。4个疗程结束后阴茎长度和PL-SDS分别达到（2.7±0.8）、（2.8±0.6）、（2.6±0.4）、（2.6±0.4）cm和-2.8±1.6、-2.5±1.6、-2.9±1.2、-3.2±0.9，与基线相比，差异均有统计学意义（t=4.05、3.56、2.55、2.23和3.88、3.50、2.50、2.19，均P<0.05）。PAIS患儿治疗前13例（32%）符合最低手术标准；7例（17%）符合停药标准。4个疗程后累计18例（44%）、24例（59%）、25例（61%）、26例（63%）达最低手术标准；累计12例（29%）、15例（37%）、20例（49%）、21例（51%）达到停药标准。患儿随访最大年龄至13.7岁。患儿治疗前后体重、身高、体质指数、骨龄/年龄、胆固醇和血红蛋白等均在正常范围且差异均无统计学意义（均P>0.05）。2例CAIS患儿医生确诊并处方十一酸睾酮后，患儿并未真正服药。49例患儿口服十一酸睾酮患儿血电解质、肝肾功能和甲状腺功能等均未见异常，且无性早熟、阴毛增长、攻击行为、外阴皮肤发黑、腹泻等改变。 结论： CAIS患儿口服十一酸睾酮治疗无效。PAIS患儿阴茎长度、PL-SDS的改善效果在第一疗程就可体现；阴茎长度增长欠佳患儿继续治疗，在第二、三、四疗程也可逐渐提高。十一酸睾酮软胶丸口服对大部分PAIS患儿阴茎增长明显获益，且不良反应少，耐受性良好。.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is a difference of sex development (DSD) characterized by different degrees of undervirilization in individuals with a 46,XY karyotype despite normal to high gonadal testosterone production. Classically, AIS is explained by hemizygous mutations in the X-chromosomal androgen receptor (AR) gene. Nevertheless, the majority of individuals with clinically diagnosed AIS do not carry an AR gene mutation. Here, we present a patient with a 46,XY karyotype, born with undervirilized genitalia, age-appropriate testosterone levels and no uterus, characteristic for AIS. Diagnostic whole exome sequencing (WES) showed a maternally inherited LINE1 (L1) retrotransposon insertion in the 5\' untranslated region (5\'UTR) of the AR gene. Long-read nanopore sequencing confirmed this as an insertion of a truncated L1 element of ≈ 2.7 kb and showed an increased DNA methylation at the L1 insertion site in patient-derived genital skin fibroblasts (GSFs) compared to healthy controls. The insertion coincided with reduced AR transcript and protein levels in patient-derived GSFs confirming the clinical diagnosis AIS. Our results underline the relevance of retrotransposons in human disease, and expand the growing list of human diseases associated with them.

BACKGROUND: Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) manifests itself as variable symptoms of under-virilization in patients with 46,XY disorders caused by androgen receptor (AR) gene variants. This large-sample study aimed to correlate the genotypes and phenotypes to the fertility of individuals.
METHODS: This was a cohort study that analyzed the genetic and clinical characteristics of patients with AIS from a single center in China.
RESULTS: The 117 patients were divided into 53 with complete AIS (CAIS) and 64 with partial AIS (PAIS). At their first visit, the median age was 1.83 years (0.92-4.17), and the external masculinization score was 3.0 (2.0-6.0). At the last follow-up, 92% (49/53) of patients with CAIS maintained their female gender, and 94% (60/64) of patients with PAIS were raised as males. No gender anxiety was observed in this study. Eighty-eight AR variants were identified, with 31 (35%) being unreported. Moreover, 24% (21/88) occurred more than once. The variants that appeared most frequently were located at amino acid 841, including p.R841H (n = 5) and p.R841C (n = 2). Variants p.N706S, p.R856H, and p.A871V were each observed 4 times. In terms of inheritance, 83% of patients with parental verification inherited variants from their mothers. We also observed that the variants from 1 case were inherited from his maternal grandfather who had hypospadias.
CONCLUSIONS: Most children with PAIS were raised as males. The abundance of maternally inheritable variants and the presence of case of preserved fertility indicate the fertility potential in patients with AIS. Hence, we recommend a careful evaluation of gonadectomy when fertility preservation is being considered.

BACKGROUND: Disorders of sex development (DSD) are congenital conditions characterized by atypical development of chromosomal, gonadal, and phenotypic sex. 46, XY DSD can result from disorders of testicular development or androgen synthesis.
METHODS: We present 2 rare cases of 46, XY DSD, specifically XY pure gonadal dysgenesis and complete androgen insensitivity syndrome.
RESULTS: Both cases underwent prophylactic gonadectomy due to the elevated risk of gonadal malignancy. Bilateral gonadoblastoma and dysgerminoma were diagnosed on one side, while Leydig cell hyperplasia and only Sertoli cells were diagnosed in the seminiferous tubules on both sides. The normal menstruation for the pure gonadal dysgenesis patient only as CAIS patients never menstruate. Estrogen replacement therapy was administered periodically to promote the development of secondary sexual characteristics and menstruation in pure gonadal dysgenesis case, as well as to prevent osteoporosis. Follow-up examinations revealed no tumor recurrence, and the patient with Swyer syndrome had regular menstrual cycles.
CONCLUSIONS: Laparoscopic bilateral prophylactic gonadectomy and long-term hormone therapy with patient counseling and support are recommended.

雄激素不敏感综合征（AIS）是46，XY性发育异常疾病常见病因之一，根据雄激素受体功能的缺陷程度可分为完全型、部分型及轻微型。儿童AIS的内分泌学特征为持续性雄激素抵抗，其临床管理的核心在于性别认同，改善青春期性发育特征。现以国内外研究为基础，结合国内专家的临床诊疗经验，在AIS的遗传学分子机制、临床表现、诊断及鉴别诊断、抚养性别评估、肿瘤风险、内分泌激素及外科手术治疗时机、长期预后等方面形成系统、全面的诊断和治疗专家共识，为儿科医师提供规范的临床诊治指导。.

雄激素不敏感综合征是46，XY性发育异常疾病中常见的类型之一。由于此类疾病临床表型多样，需要多个专科协同诊治、分阶段管理和治疗，部分患者需性别分配，临床医生面临医学与伦理问题的双重挑战。本文将围绕“儿童雄激素不敏感综合征诊治专家共识”，简要评述诊治现状与难点，以提高临床医生的决策能力。.

暂无摘要。

UNASSIGNED: To highlight the challenges in diagnosing 46, XY disorder of sex development related to MYRF mutation.
UNASSIGNED: We present an unusual case of a 12-year-old female child came for enlargement of clitoris and initially diagnosed as partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS).
UNASSIGNED: On examination, the patient\'s vulva was found virilized with 3cm-long clitoris. Her peripheral blood karyotype was 46, XY. The ultrasound showed an empty pelvis and hormone results confirmed hyperandrogenism. Therefore, the partial AIS was suspected, but the following whole exon sequencing indicates a pathological missense mutation in MYRF. Further investigation and surgery did not reveal any brain, heart, lung or diaphragm lesions related to MYRF, but only maldeveloped internal genitalia and a persistent urachus. Her serum testosterone dropped to normal after surgical removal of the remaining ipsilateral testis and epididymitis without spermatogenesis as shown by pathology.
UNASSIGNED: Due to the karyotype, hyperandrogenism, empty pelvis but a virilism after puberty, the patient was initially diagnosed as partial AIS. This misleading clinical diagnose will not be verified as the MYRF mutation if without the whole exon sequencing, particularly in the absence of obvious brain, heart, lung and diaphragm lesions as in this case.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is a rare disorder with X-linked recessive inheritance in 46 XY patients. The clinical manifestations vary between patients, especially regarding external genitalia development. Herein, the case of AIS in a 13-year-old male, who was born with hypospadias and presented to the hospital with gynaecomastia that had developed from 8 years of age, is reported. No micropenis, cryptorchidism or bifid scrotum were found. Testis volume was 12 ml on both sides. His testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels were normal compared with sex- and age-adjusted reference range. His bone age was approximately 13 years according to Greulich-Pyle assessment. Sequence analysis of the androgen receptor (AR) gene revealed a mutation (c.2041A>G) in exon 4, a novel mutation site in the AR gene. Prediction analysis suggested this to be a disease-causing variant. A milder clinical presentation and normal hormone levels in cases of partial AIS might differ from the usually reported signs and symptoms. A diagnosis of AIS should not be ignored in teenage patients who present with gynaecomastia and hypospadias, but normal hormone levels.

Social behaviors are regulated by sex steroid hormones, such as androgens and estrogens. However, the specific molecular and neural processes modulated by steroid hormones to generate social behaviors remain to be elucidated. We investigated whether some actions of androgen signaling in the control of social behavior may occur through the regulation of estradiol synthesis in the highly social cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni. Specifically, we examined the expression of cyp19a1, a brain-specific aromatase, in the brains of male A. burtoni lacking a functional ARα gene (ar1), which was recently found to be necessary for aggression in this species. We found that cyp19a1 expression is higher in wild-type males compared to ar1 mutant males in the anterior tuberal nucleus (ATn), the putative fish homolog of the mammalian ventromedial hypothalamus, a brain region that is critical for aggression across taxa. Using in situ hybridization chain reaction, we determined that cyp19a1+ cells coexpress ar1 throughout the brain, including in the ATn. We speculate that ARα may modulate cyp19a1 expression in the ATn to govern aggression in A. burtoni. These studies provide novel insights into the hormonal mechanisms of social behavior in teleosts and lay a foundation for future functional studies.