This study examines baseball players\' recognition framework of out, ball, and strike counts in baseball games and clarifies the differences in psychological perspectives between batters and pitchers. The participants were 396 players (294 batters and 102 pitchers) belonging to baseball clubs at eight universities. Participants answered 288 questions for all game situations by combining out, ball, and strike counts and runner position. The advantages for batters or pitchers were evaluated using a 7-point Likert scale (from very advantageous for batters to very advantageous for pitchers). Factor analysis indicated four significant factors (36 items): \"Batter\'s advantage count,\" \"Pitcher\'s advantage count,\" \"2 out young count,\" and \"0 out young count.\" In a direct comparison of these factors between batters and pitchers, batters were more aware of their advantage over pitchers in the factors \"Batter\'s advantage count\" and \"0 out young count\" and disadvantage in the \"Pitcher\'s advantage count.\" Significant differences in recognition of these factors were observed between batters and pitchers. Batters were more susceptible to game situations than were pitchers. Our findings suggest that baseball players recognize several types of game situations, although not an infinite number.

UNASSIGNED: Capitellar osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions are common in athletes. Osteochondral autograft transfer (OAT) is one possible treatment option, though outcomes including return to sport (RTS) data are limited to small series. The purpose of this study was to systematically review RTS following OAT for capitellar OCD lesions. Our secondary objectives were to evaluate patient-reported outcomes (PROs), range of motion (ROM), and complications after OAT.
UNASSIGNED: PubMed, Embase, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature were searched for peer-reviewed articles on \"osteochondral autograft transfer\" and related terms for capitellar OCD lesions. Articles were included if they reported an RTS rate and had a follow-up time point of at least 12 months. Data on RTS rates, PRO measures, complications, and ROM were extracted. Articles were assessed for methodological quality using the Methodological Index for Non-randomized Studies criteria.
UNASSIGNED: Six hundred sixty-six articles were retrieved, and 24 articles (470 patients) met the inclusion criteria. In total, 454/470 patients (97%) returned to sports following OAT for OCD. The RTS rate ranged from 79% to 100%. Return to previous level of performance ranged from 10% to 100%. Timmerman-Andrews postoperative scores (range = 169-193) were most often reported, with 87% of patients showing scores within the excellent range. Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand and Japanese Orthopedic Association scores were also excellent postoperatively for all studies reporting, with higher scores among centralized lesions vs. lateral.
UNASSIGNED: Following OAT for capitellar OCD lesions, RTS rates are high; however, athletes should be counseled on the potential of a return to lower performance or the need to change positions. Lateral lesion location may negatively impact outcomes. PRO scores are typically excellent and postoperative ROM consistently improves. This information helps counsel patients regarding expectations and outcomes of OAT for OCD of the capitellum.

UNASSIGNED: Differences in rotational range of motion (ROM) compared to humeral retrotorsion (HRT)-corrected rotational ROM exist in healthy baseball athletes, but it is unclear whether these differences exist in a pathological population.
UNASSIGNED: The purpose of this study was to determine if there are disparities between objectively measured differences in ROM and HRT-corrected deficits in injured baseball players. It was hypothesized that disparities would exist between (1) the side-to-side difference in glenohumeral external rotation (GER) and the HRT-corrected glenohumeral external rotation deficit (GERD) and (2) the side-to-side difference in glenohumeral internal rotation (GIR) and the HRT-corrected glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD).
UNASSIGNED: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.
UNASSIGNED: Data from 172 baseball players with shoulder or elbow injuries (45 shoulder, 127 elbow) were reviewed in July 2023. GER and GIR were measured on the injured and noninjured sides of all players, and diagnostic ultrasound was used to measure HRT. Dependent t tests were run to compare the side-to side differences in GER and GIR with the HRT-corrected GERD and GIRD, respectively.
UNASSIGNED: In the players with a shoulder injury, there was a significant disparity between the side-to-side difference in GER and the HRT-corrected GERD (2°± 14° vs -13°± 15°, respectively) and between the side-to-side difference in GIR and the HRT-corrected GIRD (-14°± 8° vs 2°± 9°, respectively) (P < .001 for both). Similarly, players with an elbow injury had significant disparities between the side-to-side difference in GER and the HRT-corrected GERD (6°± 9° vs -10°± 9°, respectively) and between the side-to-side difference in GIR and the HRT-corrected GIRD (-12°± 8° vs 4°± 10°, respectively) (P < .001 for both).
UNASSIGNED: The results supported our hypothesis that there were disparities between objectively measured differences in GER and GIR compared with the HRT-corrected GERD and GIRD in injured baseball players. Consideration must be given to osseous adaptations that occur at the glenohumeral joint when evaluating and treating this population.

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to determine how the combination of plyometric training (PT), which builds strength through fast, repetitive extensions and contractions, and kettlebell training (KT), using a device that is smaller than a barbell and allows for strength and full-body work, affects the physical performance and performance of high school pitchers during the season. MATERIAL AND METHODS Participants (n=30 males; age group=16-19 years) were randomized into 3 groups: compound training group (CTG) (n=10), plyometric training group (PTG) (n=10), and kettlebell group (KTG) (n=10). All groups performed training twice weekly for 4 weeks. Pre- and post-intervention assessments were conducted on isokinetic strength to measure strength, vertical jump (VJ) to measure power, dynamic balance (Y-balance), and ball speed (BS) to measure baseball performance. RESULTS We found there was increased strength, VJ, Y-balance, and BS in the CTG, PTG, and KTG (p=.000). CTG had significantly different results than PTG and KTG (p=.000). There was a significant difference in increased strength of the right knee joint flexors between PTG and KTG (p=.000). CONCLUSIONS CTG, PTG, and KTG for pitchers during the season improved significantly. These results suggest that combination training, rather than just 1 type of training, affects pitchers\' strength, VJ, Y-balance, and BS during the season.

UNASSIGNED: Injuries in professional baseball players have become exceedingly common. Efforts to mitigate injury risk have focused on the kinetic chain, shoulder motion, and so forth. It is unclear whether grip strength is related to injury risk in professional baseball pitchers.
UNASSIGNED: The purpose of this study was to determine if grip strength was a risk factor for injury. It was hypothesized that pitchers with weaker grip strength would have a higher likelihood of sustaining a shoulder or elbow injury compared with pitchers with stronger grip strength.
UNASSIGNED: Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3.
UNASSIGNED: All professional pitchers from a single Major League Baseball organization were included. Dominant and nondominant grip strength were measured after each pitching outing throughout the 2022 season. Injuries over the course of the season were recorded, and data were compared between pitchers who sustained a shoulder or elbow injury and those who did not.
UNASSIGNED: Overall, 213 pitchers were included, of whom 53 (24.9%) sustained a shoulder or elbow injury during the season. The mean grip strength for all pitchers was 144.0 ± 20.8 lb (65.3 ± 9.4 kg). The mean dominant-arm grip strength was 142.6 ± 20.8 lb (64.7 ± 9.4 kg) for pitchers who did not sustain a shoulder or elbow injury and 148.2 ± 20.9 lb (67.2 ± 9.5 kg) for pitchers who did sustain an injury, with no significant group difference in grip strength (P > .05). Furthermore, there were no significant differences in change in grip strength over the course of the season between the groups.
UNASSIGNED: There was no significant difference in mean grip strength or change in grip strength over the course of a single season between professional baseball pitchers who sustained a shoulder or elbow injury and those who did not.

Background and Objectives: Vision significantly contributes to postural control, balance, coordination, and body kinematics, thus deeply influencing everyday functionality. Sight-impaired subjects often show upper body anatomofunctional and kinetic chain alterations negatively impacting daily living efficiency and autonomy. The present study aimed to investigate and train, for the first time, upper body sensorimotor control in an Italian blind baseball team to boost global and segmental functionality while contemporarily prevent injuries. Materials and Methods: The whole team underwent a validated test battery using both quantitative traditional tools, such as goniometric active range of motion and muscular/functional tests, and an innovative biofeedback-based device, a Libra proprioceptive board. Consequently, a 6-week adapted training protocol was designed and leaded to improve sensorimotor control and, hence, counteract disability-related deficits and sport-specific overuse syndromes. Results: Statistically significant improvements were observed in all the investigated parameters. Noteworthy, an overall boost of global and segmental stability was detected through an orthostatic dynamic balance enhancement during the Y Balance test (p = 0.01) and trunk multiplanar control improvement on the Libra board (p = 0.01). Concurrently, the comparison of baseline vs. post-intervention outcomes revealed a consistent increase in upper body mobility (p < 0.05 for all the assessed districts), core recruitment (p = 0.01 for all the administered functional tests), and proprioceptive postural control (p = 0.01 for the Libra board validated test). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that a tailored sensorimotor training, conceived and led by an adapted physical activity kinesiologist, may effectively improve upper body functional prerequisites and global proprioceptive control, thus potentially promoting autonomy, quality of life, and physical activity/sport practice adherence in visually impaired individuals.

Baseball athletes across all levels of play are at an increased risk for upper extremity injury due to the supraphysiologic demands on the shoulder and elbow during overhead throwing. Little league baseball players present with a unique subset of injuries that can affect the growth plate, commonly at the shoulder or the elbow. Ascertaining a diagnosis and plan of care for little league shoulder (LLS) historically focuses on the proximal humeral physis in skeletally immature throwing athletes presenting with shoulder pain. However, while not a current standard of care, posterior glenoid dysplasia is often present in youth baseball athletes presenting with LLS, warranting a shift in the way clinicians evaluate for and treat the youth baseball athlete\'s pathologic shoulder. Therefore, purpose of this narrative review is 2-fold: first, to describe the current standard of care as it relates to a diagnosis of LLS, and second, to critically describe a comprehensive evaluation process for youth throwing athletes with shoulder pain that includes screening for evidence of posterior glenoid dysplasia. This paper summarizes the current state of the available evidence for anatomic considerations of LLS in the baseball athletes throwing shoulder. Additionally, we provide a framework for clinical evaluation using a multidisciplinary approach to evaluate the entire kinetic chain of the youth baseball athlete presenting with LLS and posterior glenoid dysplasia. A case study is presented to describe common presentations, clinical and objective examinations, and a plan of care from time of evaluation to return to throwing.

Elbow injuries related to the throwing motion in baseball during the growth period present difficulties for early detection and may cause serious future disabilities. This study aimed to comprehensively determine the characteristics and clinical assessment of elbow pain in youth baseball players. Two hundred and sixteen young baseball players underwent elbow medical examination. Basic information and physical examination, clinical assessment, and ultrasonography results were examined. Univariate analyses were statistically performed between the pain-free (98 participants) and elbow pain (118 participants) groups. The mean age was 11.6 years, and ultrasonographic abnormalities were found on the medial side of the elbow in 37.5%. In total, 118 (54.6%) participants experienced elbow pain, with 64.4% of them complaining of elbow pain on the medial side. Players with multiple positions (≥2 positions) had a significantly higher prevalence of elbow pain. Height, weight, length of baseball experience, and positive rates of horizontal flexion and moving valgus stress tests were higher in the elbow pain group than in the pain-free group. The risk factors and clinical assessment for elbow pain are useful for the prevention and early detection of throwing elbow injuries in youth baseball players.

The treatment of myofascial pain in athletes requires a set of rehabilitation techniques that aim to be effective quickly. In this context, dry needling (DNY) has shown interesting results due to its ability to reduce pain in the short term. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of DNY in managing myofascial shoulder pain in overhead athletes. PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science were screened up to March 2024, to identify studies that met the following inclusion criteria: overhead athletes with shoulder pain with a DNY approach for myofascial trigger points (MTrPs), RCT, case-control study, feasibility study as the study design. Exclusion criteria were studies that did not include athletes, studies that did not focus on the treatment of MTrPs with DNY, other reviews, no full-text availability and papers written in a language other than English. Out of 399 articles, 165 were excluded as duplicates. Of the 234 articles screened, only 6 articles met the inclusion criteria. A total of 6 studies were included in the systematic review. Initial results showed that DNY improved pain rapidly and in the short term; however, there is still no consensus on the minimum number and the interval between treatments. Major findings reported a rapid potential decrease in perceived pain, shoulder disability and an increase in muscle strength; in this scenario, DNY might be a valid solution in a sports rehabilitation setting.

BACKGROUND: Previous investigations have shown a positive relationship between baseball pitching velocity and the kinetic chain involved in pitching motion. However, no study has examined the influence of finger characteristics on pitching velocity and rate of spin via a sensor-embedded baseball.
METHODS: Twenty-one pitchers volunteered and were recruited for this study. An experimental baseball embedded with a force sensor and an inertial measurement unit was designed for pitching performance measurement. Finger length and strength were measured as dependent variables. Spin rate and velocity were independent variables. Pearson product-moment correlations (r) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) determined the relationship between finger characteristics and pitching performance.
RESULTS: Finger length discrepancy, two-point pinch strength, index finger RFD (rate of force development), middle finger impulse, and force discrepancy had significant correlations with spin rate (r = 0.500~0.576, p ≤ 0.05). Finger length discrepancy, two-point pinch, three-point pinch strength, index and middle finger RFD, middle finger impulse, and force combination had significant correlations with fastball pitching velocity (r = 0.491~0.584, p ≤ 0.05).
CONCLUSIONS: Finger length discrepancy, finger pinch strength, and pitching finger force including maximal force and RFD may be factors that impact fastball spin rate and fastball pitching velocity.