In the last two decades, important advances have been made in the chemical analysis of the fruit of carob tree. After harvesting, the fruits (also known as dry pods) are ground. The seeds can then be separated from the pulp, which represents 80-90 % of a pod\'s weight. The health benefits of carob pulp derivatives are well-recognized, and carob pulp-based food products are becoming increasingly available to consumers. The major carob-producing countries are in southern Europe and northern Africa, including the Mediterranean islands, and carob pulp products are normally prepared and consumed regionally. In this review, we compare the sugar and phenol profiles of carob pods harvested from different countries in the Mediterranean basin while accounting for the different cultivars and soil conditions in each sample area. We conclude that pod nutritional composition varies widely among countries, making it necessary for future, multi-year studies to more closely evaluate how climate and soil properties affect the phenol and sugar contents of fruits from the same trees or cultivars.

Discrimination of plant species, cultivars, and landraces is challenging because plants have high phenotypic and genotypic resemblance. Panax ginseng is commonly referred to as Korean ginseng, which contains saponins with high efficacy on cells, and has been reported to be worth billions in agroeconomic value. Korean ginseng\'s increasing global agroeconomic value includes additional species and cultivars that are not Korean ginseng but have physical characteristics close to it. This almost unidentifiable physical characteristic of Korean ginseng-like species is discriminated via molecular markers. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), found across the plant species in abundance, is a valuable tool in the molecular mapping of genes and distinguishing a plant species from adulterants. Differentiating the composition of genes in species is quite evident, but the varieties and landraces have fewer differences in addition to single nucleotide mismatch. Especially in the exon region, there exist both favorable and adverse effects on species. With the aforementioned ideas in discriminating ginseng based on molecular markers, SNP has proven reliable and convenient, with advanced markers available. This article provides the simplest cost-effective guidelines for experiments in a traditional laboratory setting to get hands-on SNP marker analysis. Hence, the current review provides detailed up-to-date information about the discrimination of Panax ginseng exclusively based on SNP adding with a straightforward method explained which can be followed to perform the analysis.

Taro is a major root crop utilized widely for diverse food and non-food applications. Taro corms are processed into various forms before consumption, which makes them digestible and palatable, extends the shelf life and reduces post-harvest losses. Taro corm contains starch as the major carbohydrate, accounting up to 70-80% of the whole dry matter. The starches obtained from different cultivars and sources significantly differ in physical, chemical, thermal, morphological, and functional properties, which can be explored for varied applications. Starch quality also controls the end-quality of food and industrial products. Several starch modification methods have been studied to improve its positive attributes and to eliminate deficiencies in its native characteristics. These modification methods, which can be categorised into physical, chemical and enzymatic, have proved to improve the characteristics and applications of starch. This review aims to compile the information about the chemical composition, characterization, isolation and modification methods, with an objective of its increased use in food or non-food industries. In addition, challenges and issues in the small-scale processing of taro are discussed. The information available in this review may help in a better understanding and utilization of taro starch.

A variety of methods have been used to examine genetic differences in P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius. They have shown genetic differences within populations of P. ginseng (within and between elite cultivars, landraces and wild accessions), within populations of P. quinquefolius (within and between wild and cultivated accessions) and between P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius as well as other Panax species. Some examples of their applications have been to show that some elite cultivars are not uniform, there are possible founder effects in certain populations, there has been the spread of cultivated types into wild populations, relative diversity differs between different populations and identification of the source and purity of commercial samples. More work in the use of molecular markers for ginseng are needed, however, particularly the use of Next Generation Sequencing. Potential applications are the use of sequence analysis for genetic selection, breeding to develop new cultivars and providing traceability from field to consumer. Research on molecular markers in ginseng has lagged compared to other crops probably because of less of an emphasis on breeding for cultivar development and relatively small areas of production. The many potential benefits for ginseng production have yet to be realized.

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is a pest species complex that causes widespread damage to cassava, a staple food crop for millions of households in East Africa. Species in the complex cause direct feeding damage to cassava and are the vectors of multiple plant viruses. Whilst significant work has gone into developing virus-resistant cassava cultivars, there has been little research effort aimed at understanding the ecology of these insect vectors. Here we assess critically the knowledge base relating to factors that may lead to high population densities of sub-Saharan African (SSA) B. tabaci species in cassava production landscapes of East Africa. We focus first on empirical studies that have examined biotic or abiotic factors that may lead to high populations. We then identify knowledge gaps that need to be filled to deliver sustainable management solutions. We found that whilst many hypotheses have been put forward to explain the increases in abundance witnessed since the early 1990s, there are little published data and these tend to have been collected in a piecemeal manner. The most critical knowledge gaps identified were: (i) understanding how cassava cultivars and alternative host plants impact population dynamics and natural enemies; (ii) the impact of natural enemies in terms of reducing the frequency of outbreaks and (iii) the use and management of insecticides to delay the development of resistance. In addition, there are several fundamental methodologies that need to be developed and deployed in East Africa to address some of the more challenging knowledge gaps.