The effects induced by medicinal aromatic plants in biological systems vary with the type and amount of bioactive substances these plants contain. Whether the purified form of the main chemical components of these plants, such as carvacrol and thymol, or plant volatile oils containing tens of bioactive compounds are more effective remains a question of debate. This study was aimed at providing a comparative assessment of the effects of Origanum syriacum L. (wild mountain thyme) volatile oil (OSVO) and one of its main components, carvacrol (CRV), on the in vitro ruminal degradability of lucerne herbage and methane production during the degradation of lucerne. For this purpose, wild thyme was harvested at the beginning of the flowering period, and the OSVO was extracted from the plant by steam distillation. Gas production assays were performed in five groups of ruminal fluid samples, one of which was maintained for control purposes, and the other four 40/60/80 mg/l of OSVO and 60 mg/l of CRV were added. Compared to the control group, in the samples with the added CRV and OSVO, the amounts of in vitro total gas and methane production were observed to have been affected, but no decrease was detected in the ruminal protozoa counts. The level of ammonia nitrogen was lowest in the groups, in which CRV and 40 mg/l of OSVO (P < 0.01) were added. The ruminal protozoa counts were not affected by the addition of CRV and OSVO. While the total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) and propionic acid (PA) concentrations in the in vitro fermentation fluid of lucerne herbage were low in all the groups, butyric acid was detected at a level of 40 mg/l in the group where CRV was added. The OSVO was ascertained to have induced dose-dependent alterations in the investigated in vitro digestion parameters. In result, CRV (60 mg/l) and OSVO (40 mg/l) were determined to have shown a relatively positive effect on the in vitro ruminal gas production. The anti-methanogenic effect of the plant extracts was due to the decreased digestibility of the lucerne herbage. This can have a positive impact on the environment, but the same cannot be said for the animal nutrient use and animal performance.

Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J.Presl, a tropical aromatic evergreen tree belonging to the Lauraceae family, is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is also a traditional spice used worldwide. However, little is currently known about the extent of the genetic variability and population structure of C. cassia. In this study, 71 individuals were collected from seven populations across two geographical provinces in China. Nine morphological features, three chemical components, and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were used in an integrated study of C. cassia germplasm variations. Remarkable genetic variation exists in both phenotypic and chemical compositions, and certain traits, such as leaf length, leaf width, volatile oil content, and geographic distribution, are correlated with each other. One-year-old C. cassia seedling leaf length, leaf width, elevation, and volatile oil content were found to be the main contributors to diversity, according to principal component analysis (PCA). Three major groupings were identified by cluster analysis based on the phenotypic and volatile oil data. This was in line with the findings of related research using 1,387,213 SNP markers; crucially, they all demonstrated a substantial link with geographic origin. However, there was little similarity between the results of the two clusters. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed that the genetic diversity of C. Cassia populations was low, primarily among individuals within populations, accounting for 95.87% of the total. Shannon\'s information index (I) varied from 0.418 to 0.513, with a mean of 0.478 (Na=1.860, Ne =1.584, Ho =0.481, He =0.325, and PPB =86.04%). Genetic differentiation across populations was not significant because natural adaptation or extensive exchange of seeds among farmers between environments, thus maintaining the relationship. Following a population structure analysis using the ADMIXTURE software, 71 accessions were found to be clustered into three groups, with 38% of them being of the pure type, a finding that was further supported by PCA. Future breeding strategies and our understanding of the evolutionary relationships within the C. cassia population would benefit greatly from a thorough investigation of phenotypic, chemical, and molecular markers.

OBJECTIVE: Curcumae Rhizoma (CR) is a traditional Chinese medicine used frequently in clinics, which contains volatile components that exhibit various active effects. This study explores the effect of Curcumae Rhizoma volatile oil (CRVO) on depressive mice and its possible mechanism of action.
METHODS: Chemical composition of CRVO was analysed by GC-MS. DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging assays were used to evaluate the in vitro antioxidant capacity of CRVO. A chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) model was used to evaluate the antidepressant effect of CRVO. The effects of CRVO on oxidative stress in vivo were investigated using Nissl staining, ELISA and transmission electron microscopy. The Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 signalling pathway was detected by western blotting and immunofluorescence. ML385, a Nrf2 inhibitor was used to validate the effect of Nrf2 on CUMS mice with CRVO treatment.
RESULTS: Phytochemical analysis showed that CRVO is rich in its characteristic components, including curzerene (31.1%), curdione (30.56%), and germacrone (12.44%). In vivo, the administration of CRVO significantly ameliorated CUMS-induced depressive-like behaviours. In addition, inhalation of CRVO significantly alleviated the oxidative stress caused by CUMS and improved neuronal damage and mitochondrial dysfunction. The results of mechanistic studies showed that the mechanism of action is related to the Nrf2/HO-1/NQO1 pathway and the antioxidant and antidepressant effects of CRVO were weakened when ML385 was used.
CONCLUSIONS: In summary, by regulating the Nrf2 pathway, inhalation of CRVO can reduce oxidative stress in depressed mice, thereby reducing neuronal damage and mitochondrial dysfunction to alleviate depression-like behaviours. Our study offers a prospective research foundation to meet the diversity of clinical medication.

BACKGROUND: Hyssopus cuspidatus Boriss., a classic Uyghur medicine, is used to treat inflammatory lung diseases such as asthma. But the therapeutic effect and mechanism of the volatile oil of Hyssopus cuspidatus Boriss.(HVO) in asthma therapy remain unclear.
OBJECTIVE: We aim to characterize the constituents of HVO, investigate the therapeutic effect in OVA-induced allergic asthmatic mice and further explore the molecular mechanism.
METHODS: In this study, we applied two-dimensional gas chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-QTOF MS) to identify the ingredients of HVO. We established OVA-induced asthmatic model to investigate the therapeutic effect of HVO. To further explore the potential molecular pathways, we used network pharmacology approach to perform GO and KEGG pathways enrichment, and then built an ingredient-target-pathway network to identify key molecular pathways. Finally, LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and OVA-induced asthmatic model were used to validate the potential signaling pathways.
RESULTS: GC × GC-QTOF MS analysis revealed the presence of 123 compounds of HVO. The sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes are the main constituents. The in vivo study indicated that HVO suppressed OVA-induced eosinophilic infiltration in lung tissues, inhibited the elevation of IgE, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels, downregulated the expressions of phosphorylated PI3K, Akt, JNK and P38, and maintained epithelial barrier integrity via reducing the degradation of occludin, Zo-1, Zo-2, and E-cadherin. The in vitro study also revealed an inhibition of NO release and downregulation of phosphorylated PI3K, Akt, JNK and P38 levels.
CONCLUSIONS: HVO alleviates airway inflammation in OVA-induced asthmatic mice by inhibiting PI3K/Akt/JNK/P38 signaling pathway and maintaining airway barrier integrity via reducing the degradation of occludin, Zo-1, Zo-2, and E-cadherin.

Gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses were conducted on essential oil extracted from Saudi Arabian Artemisia judaica L. (A. judaica) aerial parts, resulting in the identification of 58 constituents, representing 93.0% of the total oil composition. The oil primarily consisted of monoterpenes (38.6%), sesquiterpenes (14.1%), and other compounds such as ethyl esters and cyclic ketones (40.3%). The main components identified were piperitone (16.5%), ethyl cinnamate (12.9%), and camphor (9.7%). Multivariate statistical analyses (MVAs), including principal component analysis (PCA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) analysis, were employed to compare the chemical makeup of this oil with 20 other A. judaica oils from various regions. The study revealed distinct clusters, highlighting unique chemotypes and geographic variations. Particularly, the oil from the current study demonstrated a specialized chemical profile with significant concentrations of specific compounds, contributing significantly to its distinctiveness. Further cytotoxicity testing on RAW264.7 macrophages suggested that concentrations below 20 μg/mL of A. judaica oil are suitable for future pharmacological investigations. This study provides valuable insights into the chemical diversity, geographic variations, and potential biomedical applications of these essential oils.

Volatile oil serves as a traditional antipyretic component of Bupleuri Radix. Bupleurum marginatum var. stenophyllum (Wolff) Shan et Y. Li belongs to the genus Bupleurum and is distinguished for its high level of saikosaponins and volatile oils; nonetheless, prevailing evidence remains inconclusive regarding its viability as an alternative resource of other official species. This study aims to systematically compare the volatile oil components of both dried and fresh roots of B. marginatum var. stenophyllum and the four legally available Bupleurum species across their chemical, molecular, bionics, and anatomical structures. A total of 962 compounds were determined via GC-MS from the dried roots; B. marginatum var. stenophyllum showed the greatest differences from other species in terms of hydrocarbons, esters, and ketones, which was consistent with the results of fresh roots and the e-nose analysis. A large number of DEGs were identified from the key enzyme family of the monoterpene synthesis pathway in B. marginatum var. stenophyllum via transcriptome analysis. The microscopic observation results, using different staining methods, further showed the distinctive high proportion of phloem in B. marginatum var. stenophyllum, the structure which produces volatile oils. Together, these pieces of evidence hold substantial significance in guiding the judicious development and utilization of Bupleurum genus resources.

Propolis is a natural resinous product produced by Apis mellifera bees from the exudates of various plants. The color of propolis (green) is a consequence of its botanical origin, as bees collect young tissues and leaves of Baccaris dracunculifolia. This study evaluated the chemical composition and extraction kinetics of essential oils obtained from Brazilian green propolis by hydrodistillation. Hydrodistillation was performed for 360 min and analyzed at different times (30, 60, 120, 240, and 360 min), allowing the calculation of the accumulated content (% w/w) and the identification of the essential oil chemical profile. The GC/FID and GC/MS analysis led to the annotation of 60 compounds with estragole (13.30 %), benzyl propanoate (14.59 %), and (E)-nerolidol (13.57 %) as the main compounds. The optimum conditions for extraction of phenylpropanoids (PP), hydrocarbons (HD), monoterpenes (MT), and oxygenated monoterpenes (OMT) are between 30 and 120 min. In comparison, sesquiterpenes (ST) and oxygenated sesquiterpenes (OST) are extracted more efficiently between 240 and 360 min. The optimal extraction speed determination is essential for industrial-scale processing to obtain components such as sesquiterpenes, which have a high economic value in the cosmetic/perfumery and pharmaceutical industries.

Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (A. sinensis) is a medicinal and edible values substance, which could promote blood circulation and enrich blood. It possesses rich chemical components and nutrients, which have significant therapeutic effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. It is commonly used for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in the elderly, especially in improving ischemic damage to the heart and brain, protecting vascular cells, and regulating inflammatory reactions. This article reviews the main pharmacological effects and clinical research of A. sinensis on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in recent years, explores the effect of its chemical components on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases by regulating the expression of functional proteins and inhibiting inflammation, anti-apoptosis, and antioxidant mechanisms. It provides a reference for further research on A. sinensis and the development of related drugs. It provides a new reference direction for the in-depth research and application of A. sinensis in the prevention, improvement, and treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases.

BACKGROUND: Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thwaites (Annonaceae) is a medicinal plant that has been reported for its various pharmacological potentials, such as its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, and neuropharmacological activities. This study aimed to analyze the leaf essential oils of P. suberosa (PSLO) collected in different seasons, to evaluate the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity, and to corroborate the obtained results via in-silico molecular docking studies.
METHODS: The leaf essential oils of P. suberosa collected in different seasons were analyzed separately by GC/MS. The acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of the leaves oil was assessed via colorimetric assay. In-silico molecular docking studies were elucidated by virtual docking of the main compounds identified in P. suberosa leaf essential oil to the active sites in human acetylcholinesterase crystal structure.
RESULTS: A total of 125 compounds were identified where D-limonene (0.07 - 24.7%), α-copaene (2.25 - 15.49%), E-β-caryophyllene (5.17 - 14.42%), 24-noroleana-3,12-diene (12.92%), β-pinene (0.14 - 8.59%), and α-humulene (2.49-6.9%) were the most abundant components. Results showed a noteworthy influence of the collection season on the chemical composition and yield of the volatile oils. The tested oil adequately inhibited acetylcholinesterase enzyme with an IC50 value of 91.94 µg/mL. Additionally, in-silico molecular docking unveiled that palmitic acid, phytol, p-cymene, and caryophyllene oxide demonstrated the highest fitting scores within the active sites of human acetylcholinesterase enzyme.
CONCLUSIONS: From these findings, it is concluded that P. suberosa leaf oil should be evaluated as a food supplement for enhancing memory.

This study aimed to develop a suitable dosage form of volatile oil from wampee leaves and to explore its antibacterial mechanism in vitro. The chemical composition of the volatile oil from wampee leaves was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Different microemulsion ratios were tested and their stabilities were investigated to determine the optimal ratio. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the wampee leaves volatile oil emulsion (WVOE) against Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) were determined using double-dilution and plate-counting methods, respectively. Morphological changes in these two bacteria were observed using scanning electron microscopy. Death, ultrastructural morphology, and biofilm formation were also assessed for S. aureus. Finally, we established an S. aureus-infected Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cell model to evaluate the protective effects of the volatile oil emulsion and the associated mechanisms. The volatile oil extracted from wampee leaves contained 37 compounds, of which 96.49% were aromatic hydrocarbons, terpenoids, and their oxygen-containing derivatives. The emulsion was most stable at 1:1 in the oil phase and 1:9 in the water phase. WVOE had poor antibacterial activity against S. typhimurium, but the MIC and MBC against S. aureus were 312.5 and 2,500 μg/mL, respectively. S. aureus survival rates were 84.6%, 14.5%, and 12.8% in the 1/2, 1, and 4 × MIC groups, respectively, compared with 97.2% in the control group. S. typhimurium survival was not affected by WVOE treatment. WVOE administration induced cavity formation and abnormal binary fission, and significantly inhibited biofilm formation in S. aureus cells. The WVOE notably reduced the number of S. aureus and inhibited TLR4, NLRP3, NF-κB, IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α gene expression in S. aureus-infected LLC cells. The WVOE had a significant inhibitory effect on S. aureus and altered its cell membrane permeability. Moreover, it alleviated inflammation by inhibiting the NF-κB-NLRP3 pathway in S. aureus-infected LLC cells.