The establishment of neurology schools in Latin America during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries profoundly influenced the French neurology school. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the neurology department at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris held a preeminent position as the global hub of neurology. Professor Jean-Martin Charcot, widely acclaimed as the father of modern neurology, was the most revered neurology professor of the nineteenth century. Many physicians from diverse countries across South America (notably Argentina, Uruguay, Peru, Brazil, and Colombia), the Caribbean (Cuba), and Mexico pursued specialized training in neurology under Charcot\'s tutelage, and even after his passing in 1893, they continued their training with his numerous disciples. As a result, nearly two centuries after the birth of Charcot, his enduring contributions to the field of neurology remain vibrantly influential, particularly in Latin America.

Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) is Scottish physiologist, surgeon, artist, philosopher and anatomist. Throughout his professional career, Charles Bell made a number of important discoveries and published a large number of scientific papers. Bell first presented a detailed description of the clinical picture of facial palsy (later named after him) and a number of other neurological disorders, as well as important information about referred pain and reciprocal inhibition. Exploring the physical expression of emotions, Bell described the anatomical basis of facial expressions, which became the basis and incentive for Charles Darwin\'s work in this direction. Being a talented artist, the scientist himself illustrated his publications. Bell was one of the first to integrate scientific research in neuroanatomy with clinical practice. His most significant discoveries are collected in the book «The Nervous System of the Human Body» (1830). A number of neurological conditions and patterns were named after him.
Сэр Чарльз Белл (1774—1842) — шотландский физиолог, хирург, художник, философ и анатом. На протяжении своей профессиональной деятельности Чарльз Белл сделал ряд важных открытий и опубликовал большое количество научных работ. Белл впервые представил подробное описание клиники паралича лицевого нерва (впоследствии названного его именем) и ряда других неврологических расстройств, а также важные сведения об отраженной боли и реципрокном торможении. Исследуя физическое выражение эмоций, Белл описал анатомические основы мимики, что стало базой и стимулом для работы Чарльза Дарвина в этом направлении. Будучи талантливым художником, ученый сам иллюстрировал свои публикации. Белл был одним из первых, кто объединил научные исследования нейроанатомии с клинической практикой. Наиболее значительные его открытия собраны в книге «Нервная система человеческого тела» (1830). Именем Белла назван ряд неврологических состояний и закономерностей.

Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) is known to have possessed interesting works of art, e.g. Jan Steen\'s Marriage at Cana. In 1899, his pupil and colleague Henry Meige (1866-1940) wrote that Charcot had been interested in a painting (after a drawing) by Bruegel, named Les Arracheurs de Pierres de Teste. At the time the painting belonged to Charcot\'s contemporary Ernest Mesnet (1825-1898). When Charcot visited Mesnet, he offered him a considerable amount of money. The owner did not want to sell it, but promised to leave it to Charcot in his will. As Charcot died earlier than Mesnet, the painting went to the latter\'s heirs. In 1899, it was possessed by dermatologist dr. Paul de Molènes-Mahon (b. 1857). Meige published an article, in which he criticized the quality of the copy. Surgeon Henri Gaudier (1866-1942) wrote about the original painting in the Museum of St. Omer and confirmed Meige\'s opinion about the copy. I will illustrate the St. Omer painting and describe Meige\'s and Gaudier\'s comments by comparing it with the black & white copy in Meige\'s 1899 article. My study looks at Charcot as a collector of paintings, which is a minimally studied topic. He may have been interested in the Paris Bruegel copy for clinical and medical-historical reasons, rather than on aesthetic grounds.

One hundred years ago, an influenza pandemic swept across the globe that coincided with the development of a neurological condition, named \"encephalitis lethargica\" for the occurrence of its main symptom, the sudden onset of sleepiness that either developed into coma or gradually receded. Between 1917 and 1920, mortality of the flu was >20 million and of encephalitis lethargica approximately 1 million. For lessons to be learned from this pandemic, it makes sense to compare it with the COVID-19 pandemic, which occurred 100 years later. Biomedical progress had enabled testing, vaccinations, and drug therapies accompanied by public health measures such as social distancing, contact tracing, wearing face masks, and frequent hand washing. From todays\' perspective, these public health measures are time honored but not sufficiently proven effective, especially when applied in the context of a vaccination strategy. Also, the protective effects of lockdowns of schools, universities, and other institutions and the restrictions on travel and personal visits to hospitals or old-age homes are not precisely known. Preparedness is still a demand for a future pandemic. Clinical trials should determine the comparative effectiveness of such public health measures, especially for their use as a combination strategy with vaccination and individual testing of asymptomatic individuals. It is important for neurologists to realize that during a pandemic the treatment possibilities for acute stroke and other neurological emergencies are reduced, which has previously led to an increase of mortality and suffering. To increase preparedness for a future pandemic, neurologists play an important role, as the case load of acute and chronic neurological patients will be higher as well as the needs for rehabilitation. Finally, new chronic forms of postviral disease will likely be added, as was the case for postencephalitic parkinsonism a century ago and now has occurred as long COVID.

BACKGROUND: Charles Foix (1882-1927) may be mostly remembered today due to his contributions to vascular neurology and the syndromes that bear his name, such as the Foix-Alajouanine syndrome. However, he also developed a literary career and composed poetry and a vast collection of plays, often dealing with biblical themes or figures from Greek mythology.
CONCLUSIONS: His poetry was often inspired by his own experiences during the First World War, in which he was assigned to serve as a medical officer in Greece, becoming enamored with his surroundings and the classical lore.
CONCLUSIONS: The authors explore Foix\'s poetry and drama and their relationship to his overall work as a neurologist, including his wartime experiences.

This paper is a summary of the evolution of the tuning fork, a crucial part of the cranial nerves and auditory examination. The tuning fork is a two-pronged fork that resonates at a specific pitch when struck against a surface and has been proven to be incredibly useful in diagnosing and detecting hearing disorders. The tuning fork, an unassuming device in modern medicine, traces its origins back to an era when scientific understanding and medical diagnostics were in their nascent stages. Since its inception, this unpretentious instrument has played a pivotal role in the hands of healthcare practitioners, aiding in the diagnosis and assessment of various medical conditions. This paper embarks on a captivating journey through time to explore the origin, evolution, and significant milestones in the development of the tuning fork. From the first suggestion of differentiating hearing disorders to present-day tuning forks, this paper maps the different stages that the tuning fork has gone through and how its use has changed over time. Along the way, we will discover how the tuning fork has harmonized with music, medicine, and various scientific pursuits, enriching our understanding of sound and resonance while leaving an indelible mark on the course of human history. Delving into the historical context of its creation, this review uncovers the ingenious minds that birthed this innovative device and the pivotal moments that brought it to the forefront of human endeavors.

Reviewing historical medical manuscripts shows that neurological disorders have been previously described in the Islamic Golden Age. Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna (980-1037 AD), was one of the most renowned scientists during this period. He widely practiced medicine, especially those disorders related to neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry in conventional medicine. In his extant book al-Qānūn fī al-Tibb (the Canon of Medicine), he claimed that some types of brain diseases can be related to the \"marāqq\" and called them marāqq-related disorders. From Avicenna\'s viewpoint, \"marāqq\" is considered a membranous structure in the abdomen. Ibn Sina has illustrated the association between the \"marāqq\" and the brain through some direct and indirect pathways. As a result, some disturbances in the \"marāqq\" can influence the brain, which can contribute to the pathogenesis of a number of brain diseases. Accordingly, those patients who regularly had gastrointestinal discomforts experienced a higher prevalence of headache, melancholia, and epilepsy. This study aimed to explore the relationship between abdominal and brain diseases from Avicenna\'s viewpoint. Furthermore, the definition, clinical manifestation, and therapeutic strategies of marāqq-related disorders were described.

Jean Lhermitte (1877-1959), the French neurologist and psychiatrist, is most often associated with the sign he described in three patients with multiple sclerosis, back in 1927. In 1937, Lhermitte analytically studied a series of 28 amputees experiencing phantom limb sensations further to amputations dating between 1891 and 1934. After having described the main clinical characteristics of this unpublished series, we will detail the ideas advanced by Jean Lhermitte regarding the phenomenon of the phantom limb. Lhermitte will use these observations to develop conceptions of consciousness and the body schema encompassing very modern resonances.

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More than 100 years after its emergence, the exact pathophysiological mechanisms underlying encephalitis lethargica (EL) are still elusive and awaiting convincing and complete elucidation. This article summarizes arguments proposed over time to support or refute the hypothesis of EL as an autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder triggered by an infectious process. It also provides a critical evaluation of modern cases labeled as EL and a comprehensive differential diagnosis of autoimmune neurological conditions that could mimic EL. The evidence supporting the autoimmune nature of historical EL is sparse and not entirely convincing. It is possible that autoimmune mechanisms were involved in the pathogenesis of this disease as an idiosyncratic response to a yet unidentified infectious agent in genetically predisposed individuals. Although there has been an increase in the incidence of presumed autoimmune encephalomyelitis since the peak of EL pandemics, most evidence does not support an underlying autoimmune mechanism. There are significant differences between historical and recent EL cases in terms of clinical symptomatology, epidemiology, and neuropathological features, suggesting that they are different entities with only superficial similarity. The term \"encephalitis lethargica,\" still frequently used in the medical literature, should not be used for cases occurring at present in the sporadic form. Historical EL should be kept apart from recent EL, as they differ in important aspects.