BACKGROUND: Bladder cancer ranks 17th in prevalence of cancer types among women, and the trend is rising. The increased risk of female sexual dysfunction (FSD) after radical cystectomy (RC) underscores the need for greater focus on preserving and mitigating FSD.
OBJECTIVE: To place greater emphasis on the importance of female sexual function (FSF) in the treatment of bladder cancer and stimulate additional research to discover more effective solutions for enhancing the overall quality of life.
METHODS: This review used a narrative approach. Previous reviews on FSF after RC have provided limited and 1-sided solutions due to the lack of research. What makes this review unique is its innovative approach: it includes all available measures curing FSD as well as comparative analyses based on experimental data, thus making the findings more comprehensive. A detailed perspective of treatments for female bladder cancer is provided, including nerve- and organ-sparing RC, robot-assisted RC, and radiotherapy. We also analyze the impact of treatments for female bladder cancer on postoperative FSD. Additionally, solutions for addressing or alleviating postoperative FSD are summarized, such as urinary diversion, vaginal reconstruction, and drug and nondrug treatment.
RESULTS: Research has suggested that robot-assisted nerve- and organ-sparing RC is promising. Moreover, orthotopic neobladder among urinary diversions without a stoma helps to maintain a positive female body image. If part of the anterior vaginal wall must be removed during RC, vaginal reconstruction can restore the dimensions with synthetic grafts and biologic scaffolds. Additionally, postoperative measures, such as vaginal laser and hormone therapy, and use of vaginal dilators and lubricants have a significant role in reducing distress caused by FSD to provide maximum relief.
CONCLUSIONS: To support FSF after RC, various interventions are needed, and urologists must focus on patient recovery while minimizing treatment impact on FSF as much as possible.

BACKGROUND: 3D-printing is widely used in regenerative medicine and is expected to achieve vaginal morphological restoration and true functional reconstruction. Mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes (MSCs-Exos) were applyed in the regeneration of various tissues. The current study aimed to explore the effctive of MSCs-Exos in vaginal reconstruction.
METHODS: In this work, hydrogel was designed using decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) and gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) and silk fibroin (SF). The biological scaffolds were constructed using desktop-stereolithography. The physicochemical properties of the hydrogels were evaluated; Some experiments have been conducted to evaluate exosomes\' effect of promotion vaginal reconstruction and to explore the mechanism in this process.
RESULTS: It was observed that the sustained release property of exosomes in the hydrogel both in vitro and in vitro.The results revealed that 3D scaffold encapsulating exosomes expressed significant effects on the vascularization and musule regeneration of the regenerative vagina tissue. Also, MSCs-Exos strongly promoted vascularization in the vaginal reconstruction of rats, which may through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.
CONCLUSIONS: The use of exosome-hydrogel composites improved the epithelial regeneration of vaginal tissue, increased angiogenesis, and promoted smooth muscle tissue regeneration. 3D-printed, lumenal scaffold encapsulating exosomes might be used as a cell-free alternative treatment strategy for vaginal reconstruction.

Gender-affirming vaginoplasty (GAV) comprises the construction of a vulva and a neovaginal canal. Although technical nuances of vulvar construction vary between surgeons, vulvar construction is always performed using the homologous penile and scrotal tissues to construct the corresponding vulvar structures. Therefore, the main differentiating factor across gender-affirming vaginoplasty techniques is the tissue that is utilized to construct the neovaginal canal. These tissue types vary markedly in their availability, histology, and ease of harvest and have different advantages and disadvantages to their use as neovaginal lining. In this narrative review, the authors provide a comprehensive overview of the tissue types and associated operative approaches used for construction of the neovagina in GAV. Tissue choice is guided by several factors, such as histological similarity to natal vaginal mucosa, tissue availability, lubrication potential, additional donor site morbidity, and the specific goals of each patient. Skin is used to construct the neovagina in most cases with a combination of pedicled penile skin flaps and scrotal and extra-genital skin grafts. However, skin alternatives such as peritoneum and intestine are increasing in use. Peritoneum and intestine are emerging as options for primary vaginoplasty in cases of limited genital skin or revision vaginoplasty procedures. The increasing number of gender-affirming vaginoplasty procedures performed and the changing patient demographics from factors such as pubertal suppression have resulted in rapidly evolving indications for the use of these differing vaginoplasty techniques. This review sheds light on the use of less frequently utilized tissue types described for construction of the neovaginal canal, including mucosal tissues such as urethral and buccal mucosa, the tunica vaginalis, and dermal matrix allografts and xenografts. Although the body of evidence for each vaginoplasty technique is growing, there is a need for large prospective comparison studies of outcomes between these techniques and the tissue types used to line the neovaginal canal to better define indications and limitations.

Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome is a severe congenital disorder characterized by vaginal hypoplasia caused by dysplasia of the Müllerian duct. Patients with MRKH syndrome often require nonsurgical or surgical treatment to achieve satisfactory vaginal length and sexual outcomes. The extracellular matrix has been successfully used for vaginal reconstruction.
In this study, we developed a new biological material derived from porcine vagina (acellular vaginal matrix, AVM) to reconstruct the vagina in Bama miniature pigs. The histological characteristics and efficacy of acellularization of AVM were evaluated, and AVM was subsequently transplanted into Bama miniature pigs to reconstruct the vaginas.
Macroscopic analysis showed that the neovaginas functioned well in all Bama miniature pigs with AVM implants. Histological analysis and electrophysiological evidence indicated that morphological and functional recovery was restored in normal vaginal tissues. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the neovaginas had mucosal folds characteristics of normal vagina. No significant differences were observed in the expression of CK14, HSP47, and α-actin between the neovaginas and normal vaginal tissues. However, the expression of estrogen receptor (ER) was significantly lower in the neovaginas than in normal vaginal tissues. In addition, AVM promoted the expression of β-catenin, c-Myc, and cyclin D1. These results suggest that AVM might promotes vaginal regeneration by activating the β-catenin/c-Myc/cyclin D1 pathway.
This study reveals that porcine-derived AVM has potential application for vaginal regeneration.

OBJECTIVE: Locally advanced and recurrent colorectal cancer can require extended surgery, including reconstruction of the vagina. This complex surgery carries high morbidity. The aim of this study was to analyse the impact on female sexual functioning of pelvic exenteration (PE), with or without vaginal flap reconstruction, for locally advanced or recurrent colorectal cancer.
METHODS: The protocol with search strategies for PubMed (Medline), EMBASE and the Cochrane Library was registered in PROSPERO. Studies published from 2000 onwards meeting the inclusion criteria were considered. Study selection (Rayyan), data extraction, rating of evidence (GRADE) and risk of bias (ROBINS-I) were conducted independently by two reviewers.
RESULTS: Six of 2479 identified records were included: four retrospective and two cross-sectional studies. Of all 860 patients included, PE was performed in 314 patients. Seven hundred and thirty-two had rectal cancer (85.1%), 80 nonadvanced rectal cancer (10.9%), 393 locally advanced rectal cancer (53.7%) and 217 locally recurrent rectal cancer (29.6%); for 45 patients the type of rectal cancer remained unspecified (6.1%). Three studies reported on both preoperative and postoperative female sexual activity. Of the 153 women who were sexually active preoperatively, 64 (41.8%) reported postoperative sexual activity. The VRAM flap was used the most frequently and resulted in a sexual activity ratio of 18% postoperatively. Four studies, using six different validated questionnaires, reported mostly lowered sexual functioning postoperatively.
CONCLUSIONS: Most studies showed that PE can result in severe sexual dysfunction despite reconstruction. Future prospective studies can fill the current knowledge gap by assessing long-term sexual outcomes in women.

OBJECTIVE: Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome is a condition with an underdeveloped or absent vagina and uterus due to embryological growth failure of the Müllerian ducts. Many techniques have been described to construct a neovagina with an acceptable depth that allows penetrative intercourse. This is a step-by-step video tutorial on the Wharton-Sheares-George surgical technique for vaginoplasty in patients with MRKH syndrome.
METHODS: With Wharton-Sheares-George vaginoplasty, the rudimentary Müllerian ducts are incrementally dilated by pushing Hegar dilators in the direction of the pelvic axis, and the resulting median raphe is then intersected using diathermy. As a result, a neovagina is created and an estriol-coated vaginal mold is inserted for 3 days. The patient receives comprehensive discharge instructions, a self-dilation program three times a day, and a monthly follow-up.
RESULTS: A 3-month follow-up showed a high subjective degree of satisfaction with surgery and sexual satisfaction in both patients.
CONCLUSIONS: Wharton-Sheares-George vaginoplasty is a safe and efficient technique for creating a neovagina for patients with MRKH syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: In the pediatric population, vaginoplasties can be performed in patients with either congenital malformations or acquired conditions. To our knowledge, there has been no study to date investigating the outcomes of vaginoplasty in the pediatric population using a nationwide database. Here, we present a national cohort study of perioperative characteristics and 30-day complications of vaginoplasty in pediatric patients.
METHODS: A level II retrospective, prognosis cohort study was performed using the Pediatric National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP-P) database from 2012 to 2020. Data from patients age 0 to 18 who underwent vaginoplasty was queried using CPT code 57,335. Descriptive analysis was performed to elucidate patterns in patient demographics, perioperative characteristics, and 30-day postoperative outcomes.
RESULTS: A total of 183 patients were identified. Median age was 2.41 years (IQR 0.9 to 12.1). In this population, 58.5% of patients had ASA class 2, and 33.3% ASA class 3. Congenital malformation was present in 75.9%. Average total length of stay was 2.7 days (SD = 3.8) and readmission rate was 7.86%. Complications included urinary tract infection (3.3%), bleeding/transfusions (2.2%), organ/space surgical site infection (1.1%), and superficial incisional surgical site infection (0.6%). The most common procedures performed simultaneously with vaginoplasty included cystourethroscopy (n = 66), clitoroplasty for intersex state (n = 58), and plastic repair of introitus (n = 22).
CONCLUSIONS: Vaginoplasties in the pediatric population were found to have low rates of 30-day readmission and low incidence of 30-day postoperative complications. Further studies focusing on prospective clinical data related to pediatric vaginoplasty can help identify factors to improve long-term outcomes in this population.

RC significantly negatively impacts sexual function (SF) in both men and women. While significant research resources have been allocated to examine the deleterious effects of post prostatectomy erectile dysfunction, little attention has been directed towards female sexual function and organ preservation post cystectomy. These academic shortcomings often result in poor provider awareness and inadequate preoperative assessment. As such, it is crucial for all providers involved in female RC care to understand the necessary and available tools for preoperative evaluation, in addition to the anatomic and reconstructive techniques. This review aims to summarize the current preoperative evaluation and available tools of SF assessment and describe in detail the varying operative techniques in the preservation or restoration of SF in women after RC. The review explores the intricacies of preoperative evaluation tools, and intraoperative techniques for organ- and nerve-sparing during radical cystectomy in females. Particular emphasis on vaginal reconstruction after partial or complete resection is provided, including split-thickness skin (STF) graft vaginoplasy, pedicled flaps, myocutaneous flaps and use of bowel segments. In conclusion, this narrative review highlights the importance of understanding anatomic considerations and nerve-sparing strategies in promoting postoperative SF and quality of life. Furthermore, the review describes the advantages and limitations of each organ- and nerve-sparing technique and their impact on sexual function and overall well-being.

Persistent cloaca, defined as confluence of the rectum, the vagina and the urethra into a single common channel, has an estimated incidence of 1/50,000 live births. We describe the buccal mucosa graft vaginoplasty for a 11 year old female with cloaca, who underwent at the age of 11 months a Peña repair. We performed the vaginoplasty after the onset of uterine pain due to the beginning of menstruation.
We accessed the lower lip for superficial dissection to harvest the graft. The donor site has been kept with as much submucosal fat as possible to avoid damage to the buccinatoria muscles. A second graft was further obtained from the cheek. Both grafts were submitted to multiple small sections to produce a mesh graft and increase its size. A arciform incision anterior to the anal canal and posterior to the urethra was performed followed by consecutive dissection with eletrocautery to gain profundity. The mesh-graft was placed over the neovaginal cavity and sutured with 4.0 PDS monofilament suture used to suture and then quilt the graft in place. The vaginal capacity was confirmed by ease of a two-digit insertion. Haemostasis was confirmed before the insertion of a soft vaginal mold. The patient remained with an indwelling urinary catheter. The mold was equivalent to 24Fr and had 13 cm of profundity and Foley tube were removed after 14 days postoperatively.
Patient had an excellent postoperative course and had been instructed to perform vaginal dilatation every 3 h during the day. Current follow up is 10 months.
Buccal mucosal grafting has advantages over the use of keratinized skin flaps and intestinal flaps. Buccal mucosa is ideal for female genital reconstruction, given its color, texture, lack of hair and mild mucous production. In our particular case, we connected the neovagina after two months of adequate healing to the native 1⁄3 through laparoscopic approach.
BMG vaginoplasty is a viable alternative to treat females with cloaca at adolescence.

UNASSIGNED: To assess the postoperative functional, anatomical outcome and complications of various surgical procedures of vaginoplasty performed for patients with vaginal agenesis at our institution.
UNASSIGNED: This was a cross-sectional study of 14 patients (age range 17-40 years), who underwent vaginoplasty at the Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan between January 2008 to December 2018. We aimed to assess the anatomical outcomes in terms of vaginal depth, axis and functional outcome as painless and satisfactory vaginal intercourse.
UNASSIGNED: The mean age and mean body mass index (BMI) of the cases were 26.8 ± 8.1 years and 27.7143 ± 4.6 respectively. All were phenotypically female, with only two cases of XY genotype. Two patients were married on presentation. On evaluation, four cases had Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome, three had androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), one case had congenital adrenal hyperplasia and six cases did not fit into any diagnosis. Associated renal anomalies were diagnosed in 14.3% of cases. The performed procedures were; Singaporean flap vaginoplasty (in four patients), Lee\'s, modified McIndoe and pull-through vaginoplasty (in three each patients), and Davydov vaginoplasty (in one patient). One patient was complicated by intraoperative bladder injury (p<0.63) and two cases by vaginal stenosis (p<0.43). The mean operative time was 120 minutes and the mean estimated blood loss was 200mls. Postoperatively, the vaginal length varied from 6-10 cm with a normal vaginal axis and satisfactory sexual activity.
UNASSIGNED: Vaginal agenesis is associated with several sexual disorders and despite the various surgical options available, the best procedure in terms of fewer complications and best surgical outcome is yet to be determined.