BACKGROUND: Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allies on May 8, 1945. Six months later, the Allies tried the surviving leaders of Nazi Germany at the first Nuremberg trial. Later, the United States conducted 12 additional trials. The first one, The Unites States of America versus Karl Brandt et al., has been dubbed the Doctors\' Trial. During the trial, the prosecution relied on the testimony of Dr. Andrew Ivy and Dr. Leo Alexander. At the end of the trial, Judge Sebring enunciated 10 principles needed to conduct human subject research-the Nuremberg Code. Authorship of the Code has been the subject of dispute, with both Ivy and Alexander claiming sole authorship.
METHODS: In the summer of 2017, I visited Duke University Medical Center\'s Archives and surveyed the contents of boxes labeled \"Alexander\'s papers.\" I also explored online databases with information on the Doctors\' Trial. Pertinent documents were compared across collections, and against scholarly works on the topic.
RESULTS: Box 3 of Alexander\'s papers at Duke University Medical Center\'s Archives contains a three-page document with six principles that, nearly word for word, were included in what is known as the Nuremberg Code. Alexander\'s name and appointment are typed at the end of the document.
CONCLUSIONS: Although the Nuremberg Code is likely to have been an unplanned collaboration among members of the prosecuting team and the judges, I present evidence suggesting that Alexander drafted the blueprint and was the main contributor to the final version of the Code.

The Deputy Führer of the Third Reich Rudolf Hess was captured after a controversial flight to Scotland in 1941. Hess was sentenced to life imprisonment during the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials. He was detained in Berlin\'s Spandau Prison under the official security designation \'Spandau #7.\' Early doubts arose about the true identity of prisoner \'Spandau #7.\' This evolved to a frequently espoused conspiracy theory that prisoner \'Spandau #7\' was an imposter and not Rudolf Hess. After Hess\'s reputed 1987 suicide, the family grave became a Neo-Nazi pilgrimage site. In 2011, the grave was abandoned and the family remains cremated. Here we report the forensic DNA analysis of the only known extant DNA sample from prisoner \'Spandau #7\' and a match to the Hess male line, thereby refuting the Doppelgänger Theory.

The Nuremberg Trials were a sequence of tribunal sessions held by the Allied Forces between November 1945 and October 1946 with the intent of prosecuting prominent representatives of the Nazi Party for crimes committed before and during the war. Because medical experiments in human prisoners were among the most heinous offenses, a specific series of court cases, known as the Doctor\'s Trials (the USA vs. Karl Brandt et al), was carried out. A considerable part of the official documents of the Nuremberg Trials has been recently made publicly available through the Nuremberg Trials Project, an initiative of the Harvard Law School Library. We performed a comprehensive analysis of the Doctors\' Trials original documents (NMT 1: Medical Case) as well as other available academic and historical sources focusing on references to the nervous system, neurosurgical, and neurologic diseases. Besides providing a brief glance of a unique source of original historical documents, this historical vignette also attempts to fulfill, at least in some limited sense, the moral duty toward the Holocaust victims laid on our generation by remembering their fate.

UNASSIGNED: The Hippocratic Oath is a standard of medical ethics. Oath adaptations are common. Objective: Evaluate students\' perceptions regarding the oath. Design: Survey of University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Medical School graduating students regarding the oath\'s relevance, content, and application, and whether a choice of version should be provided.
UNASSIGNED: Forty-two of the fifty-three students (79 percent) considered the original oath relevant. Most (53 percent) disagreed that the oath in its original form be used, and most preferred a modified oath. More agreed (40 percent) than disagreed (28 percent) on providing a choice of version of the oath. The mean of correct answers as to the original oath\'s contents was 68 percent. Euthanasia and abortion prohibitions were recognized by 68 percent and 62 percent, respectively. Increased knowledge of the original\'s contents correlated with decreased desire that it be used (p = .02). Recognition of euthanasia/abortion prohibitions was significantly better for those in disagreement than in agreement that the original be used. Those who disagreed that a choice of oath versions be provided had significantly better knowledge of the original\'s euthanasia/abortion prohibitions than those who agreed. However, those who felt strongly that a choice should or should not be given each had a 100 percent accuracy of identifying euthanasia/abortion prohibitions.
UNASSIGNED: Most students preferred an adapted oath to the original. Increased student knowledge of the original oath\'s contents, including reference to euthanasia/abortion, significantly correlated with decreased desire to use it. Given the original\'s importance in medical ethics, this is concerning. A subset of students, however, affirmed the original\'s value and desired its use. Improved education in the Hippocratic oath is important, given modern medicine\'s complex moral issues.
UNASSIGNED: The Hippocratic oath is a standard of medical ethics. Oath adaptations eliminating the original\'s prohibitions of abortion/euthanasia are common. Most medical students who were questioned preferred the adapted oath to the original. Only two-thirds recognized the original\'s prohibitions of abortion/euthanasia. Those who knew of the original oath\'s prohibitions also had a decreased desire that it be used. Students disagreeing that a choice of versions of the oath be provided had better knowledge of these prohibitions. This is concerning, given the original oath\'s importance in medical ethics including at the 1945-1949 Nuremberg trials. Nonetheless, a subset of students affirmed the original Hippocratic oath\'s importance, desiring its use.

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