BACKGROUND: The study of parasites provides insight into intricate ecological relationships in ecosystem dynamics, food web structures, and evolution on multiple scales. Hepatozoon Eucoccidiorida: Hepatozoidae) is a genus of protozoan hemoparasites with heteroxenous life cycles that switch infections between vertebrates and blood-feeding invertebrates. The most comprehensive review of the genus was published 26 years ago, and currently there are no harmonized data on the epizootiology, diagnostics, genotyping methods, evolutionary relationships, and genetic diversity of Hepatozoon in the Americas.
METHODS: Here, we provide a comprehensive review based on the PRISMA method regarding Hepatozoon in wild mammals within the American continent, in order to generate a framework for future research.
RESULTS: 11 out of the 35 countries of the Americas (31.4%) had data on Hepatozoon, with Carnivora and Rodentia orders having the most characterizations. Bats, ungulates, and shrews were the least affected groups. While Hepatozoon americanum, H. americanum-like, H. canis, H. didelphydis, H. felis, H. milleri, H. griseisciuri, and H. procyonis correspond to the identified species, a plethora of genospecies is pending for a formal description combining morphology and genetics. Most of the vectors of Hepatozoon in the Americas are unknown, but some flea, mite, and tick species have been confirmed. The detection of Hepatozoon has relied mostly on conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the implementation of specific real time PCR for the genus needs to be employed to improve its diagnosis in wild animals in the future. From a genetic perspective, the V4 region of the 18S rRNA gene has been widely sequenced for the identification of Hepatozoon in wild animals. However, mitochondrial and apicoplast markers should also be targeted to truly determine different species in the genus. A phylogenetic analysis of herein retrieved 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences showed two main clades of Hepatozoon: Clade I associated with small mammals, birds, and herpetozoa, and Clade II associated with Carnivora. The topology of the tree is also reflected in the haplotype network.
CONCLUSIONS: Finally, our review emphasizes Hepatozoon as a potential disease agent in threatened wild mammals and the role of wild canids as spreaders of Hepatozoon infections in the Americas.

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Rickettsioses are worldwide distributed infectious disease caused by intracellular small Gram-negative bacteria transmitted to humans by the bite of contaminated arthropods, such as ticks. Systemic disease typically consists of a triad of high fever, headache, and skin rash. It usually has a self-limited course, but severe, life-threatening complications can sometimes occur. It may be clinically difficult to differentiate rickettsial diseases from other febrile illnesses. Rickettsial infection has been largely underestimated as a cause of infectious uveitis for long decades in the past. Conversely, recent data show that ocular involvement is much more common than previously thought, with retinitis, retinal vasculitis, and neuroretinitis being the most typical and frequent findings. Early clinical diagnosis of rickettsial disease, while awaiting laboratory test results, is essential for prompt initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment to prevent systemic and ocular morbidity. The prevention remains the mainstay of rickettsial infection control.

UNASSIGNED: To review the clinical features, diagnosis, treatment modalities, and prognosis of arthropod-borne infectious diseases.
UNASSIGNED: This is a narrative review on arthropod-borne infectious diseases including general and ophthalmological aspects of these infectious diseases. A comprehensive literature review between January 1983 and September 2020 was conducted in PubMed database. Epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of arthropod-borne infectious diseases were reviewed.
UNASSIGNED: Emergent and resurgent arthropod-borne infectious diseases are major causes of systemic morbidity and death that are expanding worldwide. Among them, bacterial and viral agents including rickettsial disease, West Nile virus, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, Rift valley fever, and Zika virus have been associated with an array of ocular manifestations. These include anterior uveitis, retinitis, chorioretinitis, retinal vasculitis, and optic nerve involvement. Proper clinical diagnosis of any of these infectious diseases is primarily based on epidemiological data, history, systemic symptoms and signs, and the pattern of ocular involvement. The diagnosis is confirmed by laboratory tests. Ocular involvement usually has a self-limited course, but it can result in persistent visual impairment. Doxycycline is the treatment of choice for rickettsial disease. There is currently no proven specific treatment for arboviral diseases. Prevention remains the mainstay for arthropod vector and zoonotic disease control.
UNASSIGNED: Emerging arthropod vector-borne diseases should be considered in the differential diagnosis of uveitis, especially in patient living or with recent travel to endemic countries. Early clinical diagnosis, while laboratory testing is pending, is essential for proper management to prevent systemic and ocular morbidity.

Oropouche fever is a neglected arthropodborne disease and zoonosis responsible for several outbreaks of a febrile disease in Central and South America. We present a clinical case of aseptic meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent patient that resulted from Oropouche virus acquired in northern Brazil but diagnosed in a nonendemic region.

BACKGROUND: Scrub typhus is a neglected vector-borne zoonosis causing life-threatening illnesses, endemic in the Asian-Pacific region and, as recently discovered, in southern Chile. Scrub typhus is rarely reported in travelers, most probably due to the lack of clinical experience and diagnostic tests in non-endemic countries. We report the first case of imported scrub typhus in South America.
METHODS: A 62-year-old tourist from South Korea presented severely ill with fever, rash, and eschar in Santiago, Chile. Laboratory exams showed thrombocytopenia and elevated inflammation parameters, hepatic enzymes, and LDH. With the clinical suspicion of scrub typhus, empirical treatment with doxycycline was initiated and the patient recovered rapidly and without complications. The diagnosis was confirmed by IgM serology and by real-time PCR, which demonstrated infection with Orientia tsutsugamushi (Kawasaki clade).
CONCLUSIONS: Only due to the emerging clinical experience with endemic South American scrub typhus and the recent implementation of appropriate diagnostic techniques in Chile, were we able to firstly identify and adequately manage a severe case of imported scrub typhus in South America. Physicians attending febrile travelers need to be aware of this rickettsiosis, since it requires prompt treatment with doxycycline to avoid complications.

Iran has a wide variety of zoogeographical regions and different seasons. Here are some important mosquito-borne diseases. Mosquitoes normally live in waters. Its aquatic insect fauna is highly unexplored. To being resolved this faunal gap, a variety of literature records from previous century in different parts of Iran was reviewed. In some southern and southeastern foci in Iran, Malaria is still a main endemic disease which is unstable with two seasonal spring and autumn peaks even though Iran is lunching Malaria elimination. This review article showed the wide variety of aquatic insects throughout the country. Researchers can discuss water pollutant and its quality by using aquatic insect fauna as well as biological control for vectors. Types of aquatic insects and macroinvertebrates sampling can be useful for water quality monitoring as indicators. Looking at aquatic insects\' life in water could be one of the most cost-effective and the easiest method to assess the water contaminations by different pollutants and will provide a guideline for scientific communities and environmental agencies for decision making.

Several arthropod-borne diseases are now rising with increasing impact and risks for public health, due to environmental changes and resistance to pesticides currently marketed. In addition to community surveillance programs and a careful management of herds, a next-generation of effective products is urgently needed to control the spread of these diseases, with special reference to arboviral ones. Natural product research can afford alternative solutions. Recently, a re-emerging of bluetongue disease is ongoing in Italy. Bluetongue is a viral disease that affects ruminants and is spread through the bite of bloodsucking insects, especially Culicoides species. In this review, we focused on the importance of vector control programs for prevention or bluetongue outbreaks, outlining the lack of effective tools in the fight against Culicoides vectors. Then, we analyzed a field case study in Sardinia (Italy) concerning the utilization of the neem cake (Azadirachta indica), to control young instar populations of Culicoides biting midges, the vectors of bluetongue virus. Neem cake is a cheap and eco-friendly by-product obtained from the extraction of neem oil. Overall, we propose that the employ of neem extraction by-products as aqueous formulations in muddy sites close to livestock grazing areas may represent an effective tool in the fight against the spread of bluetongue virus in the Mediterranean areas.

Efficient control of arthropod ectoparasite infestations has a long-standing history in the agriculture and veterinary sectors, aiming to decrease the parasite burden of affected crops and animals. Ligand-gated chloride channels (LGCCs) modulated by γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate have been identified as suitable molecular targets, and several classes of potent parasiticides have been devised. Due to the increase in cross-resistance and decreased development of new chemical entities, an urgent need for new parasiticides or prevention schemes has emerged. In the last decade, an innovative isoxazoline chemotype appears to offer promise for inhibiting LGCCs with a new mode of action and distinct binding site from that of historical agents. Considerable efforts have focused on optimizing the antiparasitic activity of isoxazolines and may provide the potential for future human use.

Geographic spread of parasites and pathogens poses a constant risk to animal health and welfare, particularly given that climate change is expected to potentially expand appropriate ranges for many key species. The spread of deleterious organisms via trade routes and human travelling is relatively closely controlled, though represents only one possible means of parasite/pathogen distribution. The transmission via natural parasite/pathogen movement between geographic locales, is far harder to manage. Though the extent of such movement may be limited by the relative inability of many parasites and pathogens to actively migrate, passive movement over long distances may still occur via migratory hosts. This paper reviews the potential role of migrating birds in the transfer of ectoparasites and pathogens between geographic locales, focusing primarily on ticks. Bird-tick-pathogen relationships are considered, and evidence provided of long-range parasite/pathogen transfer from one location to another during bird migration events. As shown in this paper not only many different arthropod species are carried by migrating birds but consequently these pests carry many different pathogens species which can be transmitted to the migrating birds or to other animal species when those arthropods are dropping during these migrations. Data available from the literature are provided highlighting the need to understand better dissemination paths and disease epidemiology.