Mother-infant bonding is influenced by several risk and protective factors, and the literature has investigated the relationships between these factors independently. This study aimed to verify the interrelationships of some of these factors and how they influence mother-infant bonding in Brazil. In this study, 361 mothers participated, and the outcome variable of mother-infant bonding was assessed using the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ). Multivariate regression analysis was performed using a hierarchical model with three blocks structured according to the influence exerted on mother-infant bonding. The PBQ\'s factor scores were estimated and used in the subsequent analyses to decrease measurement error. The variable \"violence experienced by mothers\" was statistically significant for explaining the second block model but not significant for the third block. Network analysis was performed after multiple regression, showing that the violence experienced by mothers does not directly influence mother-infant bonding but rather is mediated by postpartum depression. This explains why violence is not significant in the hierarchical multiple regression when maternal depression is added to the model. This study\'s strengths lie in its utilization of PBQ factor scores and network analysis, enabling the estimation of conditional relationships among variables. This approach provides deeper insights into factors affecting mother-infant bonding.
Varios factores de riesgo y de protección ejercen influencia sobre la unión afectiva madre‐infante; la literatura disponible ha investigado las relaciones entre estos factores de una manera independiente. Este estudio se propuso verificar las interrelaciones de algunos de estos factores y cómo ellos influyen en la unión afectiva madre‐infante. Se consultó un total de 361 madres y el variable resultado de afectividad madre‐infante se evaluó por medio del Cuestionario de Afectividad de Postparto (PBQ). Se llevaron a cabo análisis de regresión multivariados usando un modelo jerárquico con tres estructuras de bloques de acuerdo con la influencia ejercida sobre la unión afectiva madre‐infante. Se estimaron y usaron los puntajes de factores del PBQ en los análisis subsecuentes para disminuir el error en la medida. La variable “violencia experimentada por las madres” fue estadísticamente significativa para explicar el segundo modelo de bloque, pero no significativa para el tercer bloque. Se llevó a cabo un análisis de interrelaciones después de la regresión múltiple, demostrando que la violencia experimentada por las madres no influye directamente la afectividad madre‐infante, sino que la misma es mediada por la depresión posterior al parto. Esto explica por qué la violencia no es significativa en la jerárquica regresión múltiple cuando la depresión materna se le agrega al modelo. Entre los puntos fuertes de este estudio se incluye el uso de los puntajes de factores del PBQ y el análisis de interrelaciones, lo cual permitió que se estimaran las relaciones condicionales existente dentro del grupo de variables, aportando una mayor comprensión de algunos factores que interfieren en la unión afectiva madre‐infante.
Die Mutter‐Kind‐Bindung wird von mehreren Risiko‐ und Schutzfaktoren beeinflusst und die Literatur hat die Zusammenhänge zwischen diesen Faktoren unabhängig voneinander untersucht. Ziel dieser Studie war es, die Zusammenhänge zwischen einigen dieser Faktoren und deren Einfluss auf die Mutter‐Kind‐Bindung zu verifizieren. Insgesamt wurden 361 Mütter angefragt. Die Outcome‐Variable der Mutter‐Kind‐Bindung wurde durch den Fragebogen zur postpartalen Bindung (PBQ) beurteilt. Die multivariate Regressionsanalyse wurde anhand eines hierarchischen Modells mit drei Blöcken durchgeführt, die nach dem Einfluss auf die Mutter‐Kind‐Bindung gegliedert waren. Die Faktorwerte des PBQ wurden geschätzt und in den nachfolgenden Analysen verwendet, um den Messfehler zu verringern. Die Variable “Gewalterfahrung der Mütter” war statistisch signifikant für die Erklärung des zweiten Blockmodells, aber nicht signifikant für den dritten Block. Nach der multiplen Regression wurde eine Netzwerkanalyse durchgeführt, die zeigte, dass die von den Müttern erlebte Gewalt keinen direkten Einfluss auf die Mutter‐Kind‐Bindung hat, sondern vielmehr durch die postpartale Depression mediiert wird. Dies erklärt, warum Gewalt in der hierarchischen Mehrfachregression nicht signifikant ist, wen mütterliche Depression dem Modell hinzugefügt wird. Zu den Stärken dieser Studie gehören die Verwendung der PBQ‐Faktorwerte und die Netzwerkanalyse, die es ermöglichten, die in der Variablengruppe bestehenden bedingten Zusammenhänge zu schätzen, was zu einem besseren Verständnis einiger Faktoren führte, die die Mutter‐Kind‐Bindung beeinträchtigen.
母‐子のボンディングは多様な危険因子と保護因子の影響を受けており、これまで文献ではこれらの因子間の関係について個別に検証が行われてきた。本研究は、これらの因子の複数についての相互関係とそれらが母‐子ボンディングに与える影響を検証することを目的とした。計361名の母親を対象とし、産後ボンディング質問票 (PBQ) によって評価された母‐子ボンディングを結果変数とした。多変量回帰分析は、母‐子ボンディングに及ぼす影響に従って構造化された3つのブロックからなる階層モデルを用いて行った。PBQの因子得点は、測定誤差を減らすために推定の後、解析に用いた。変数「母親が経験した暴力」は、2番目のブロックモデルの説明には統計的に有意であったが、3番目のブロックでは有意ではなかった。重回帰の後にネットワーク解析を行ったところ、母親が経験した暴力は母‐子ボンディングに直接影響せず、むしろ産後うつによって媒介されることが示された。このことは、母親のうつをモデルに加えた場合、暴力が階層的重回帰で有意でない理由を説明している。本研究の長所としては、PBQの因子得点とネットワーク解析を用いることで、変数の集合に存在する条件付き関係を推定することができ、母‐子ボンディングを阻害するいくつかの要因についてより深い理解を提供することができた。.
摘 要:母婴关系受到多种危险因素和保护因素的影响, 相关文献已经独立研究了这些因素之间的关系。本研究旨在验证其中一些因素之间的相互关系, 以及它们对母婴关系的影响。共有361位母亲参与了本研究, 母婴关系的结果变量由“产后情感关系问卷” (PBQ) 评估。采用分层模型进行了多元回归分析, 按照对母婴关系产生影响的程度, 将其分为三个模块。估算并使用PBQ的因子得分进行后续分析, 以减少测量误差。变量”母亲经历的暴力“在解释第二模块模型时具有统计学显著性, 但对于第三模块则不显著。在多元回归之后进行了网络分析, 显示”母亲经历的暴力“并不直接影响母婴关系, 而是由产后抑郁症介导。这解释了为什么在模型中添加了母亲抑郁症时, 暴力在分层多元回归中并不显著。本研究的优势包括使用PBQ的因子得分和网络分析, 这使得能够估计变量集中存在的条件关系, 从而更好地理解一些干扰母婴关系的因素。.
يتأثر الارتباط بين الأم والرضيع بعدة عوامل خطر وعوامل وقائية، وقد بحثت الأدبيات في العلاقات بين هذه العوامل بطريقة مستقلة. هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى التحقق من العلاقات المتبادلة بين بعض هذه العوامل وكيفية تأثيرها على الترابط بين الأم والرضيع. اشترك عدد 361 من الأمهات في الدراسة ، وتم تقييم نتائج الترابط بين الأم والرضيع بواسطة استبيان الترابط بعد الولادة(PBQ) وإجراء تحليل الانحدار متعدد المتغيرات باستخدام نموذج هرمي مكون من ثلاث كتل منظمة وفقاً للتأثير الذي يمارس على الترابط بين الأم والرضيع. كما تم تقدير درجات عاملPBQ واستخدامها في التحليلات اللاحقة لتقليل خطأ القياس. أظهر متغير “العنف الذي تتعرض له الأمهات” دلالة إحصائية في تفسير نموذج الكتلة الثانية ولكنه لم يكن ذا دلالة إحصائية في الكتلة الثالثة. تم إجراء تحليل الشبكة بعد الانحدار المتعدد، مما أسفر عن نتيجة أن العنف الذي تعاني منه الأمهات لا يؤثر بشكل مباشر على الترابط بين الأم والرضيع بل يتوسطه اكتئاب ما بعد الولادة. وهذا ما يفسر سبب عدم أهمية العنف في الانحدار الهرمي المتعدد عند إضافة اكتئاب الأم إلى النموذج. تشمل نقاط القوة في هذه الدراسة استخدام درجات عاملPBQ وتحليل الشبكة، مما مكن من تقدير العلاقات الشرطية الموجودة في مجموعة المتغيرات، مما يوفر فهماً أكبر لبعض العوامل التي تتداخل في الترابط بين الأم والرضيع.

Background: Government actions and participating in protracted-duration protests against it affect protesters\' mental health, leading to high distress levels, such as posttraumatic and depressive symptoms. Aside from exposure to violence and other issues, protest participation can pose unique challenges to the protesters as they may be exposed to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs), such as the betrayal of leaders they once trusted. This study\'s primary objective was to examine the extent of psychological difficulties among civilians participating in long-duration protests in Israel. More specifically, the study aimed to understand the contribution of exposure to protest-related PMIEs to psychological difficulties such as posttraumatic and depressive symptoms.Method: Participants comprised 4036 Israelis who were actively involved in the unfolding civil protest movement against the government-led judicial overhaul between January 2023 and August 2023. The protesters completed validated self-report questionnaires that included measures of PMIE exposure, PTSD and depressive symptoms.Results: About half (44.3%) of the sample met the criteria for self-report diagnosis of major depression and 10.6% for PTSD. Most of the protesters indicated their exposure to at least one moral injury event, with 63.9% reporting exposure to PMIE-Betrayal. Protesters exposed to PMIEs reported significantly higher levels of both PTSD and depression than non-PMIE-exposed protesters. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that, beyond demographics and protest-related characteristics such as exposure to violence, PMIE dimensions significantly contributed to both PTSD and depression levels.Conclusions: The findings highlight the mental burden of protesters during the civil protests against the judicial overhaul in Israel. More central to the present research, the findings highlight the critical contribution of PMIEs exposure to this burden. Clinicians treating protesters coping with depression and PTSD following the civil actions should attend to their exposure to PMIEs, which may relate to the deleterious psychological effects among protesters.
Participation in protests have high mental burden as about half of the sample met the criteria for self-report diagnosis of major depression and 10.6% for PTSD.Protesters exposed to protest-related PMIEs reported significantly higher levels of both PTSS and depression than non-PMIE-exposed protesters.The findings highlight the critical contribution of PMIE-betrayal exposure to both PTSS and depressive symptoms, above and beyond demographic and protest-related characteristics.

Dance therapy is thought to improve mental and physical health by activating psychological and physiological processes such as motor coordination, and expression of emotions. Some currently used mind-body interventions for posttraumatic symptoms address both mental and physical health. Although some studies have evaluated the efficacy of dance therapy for posttraumatic symptoms, a systematic review of extant research has not been conducted.
To identify the effects of dance therapy in adults with psychological trauma as well as the barriers and facilitators associated with its therapeutic use.
Articles published between 2000 and March 2023 have been selected with the help of six relevant keyword combinations applied on seven databases. Two reviewers independently screened 119 titles and abstracts against inclusion and exclusion criteria. Bias evaluation has been conducted with the help of the NIH study quality assessment tools and JBI\'s critical appraisal tools. A report of the results has been organized with the help of a thematic analysis.
Of the 15 articles included, only one case study directly reports a diminution of pathognomonic symptoms of trauma. Other studies present improvements in the key aspects of trauma therapy: bodily sensations and perceptions, psychological processes, and interpersonal skills. These improvements depend on the stability of the intervention, the applied method (dance as therapy or dance/movement therapy), and likely, the skill set of the therapists. However, the reviewed studies lacked uniformity in assessments of adherence and its effect on therapeutic outcomes.
Dance therapy may be a useful technique for improving both psychological and physiological symptoms associated with trauma exposure, such as avoidance and dissociative phenomena. To complement the results of this qualitative systematic review, further quantitative and qualitative research on the impact of dance therapy interventions as a trauma treatment should be conducted.
Dance therapy may be a promising approach for the therapeutic management of psychological trauma as it can address both psychological and physical symptoms.Therapist skills and training may be important factors to consider in evaluating the impact of dance therapy on posttraumatic symptoms.Dance/movement therapy, a specific type of dance therapy, appears to be associated with improvements in sensory-motor perceptions and motor skills.To date, examination of dance therapy as a trauma treatment in an adult population has been limited primarily to women and people facing migration.

Background: Cumulative exposure to violence can change the regulation of epigenetic and physiological markers. Although violence has been associated with accelerated cellular aging, little is known about associations with cardiac autonomic activity.Objective: The current study aimed to investigate the relationship of exposure to community and domestic violence (CDV) with vagal activity and epigenetic aging acceleration.Methods: A total of 86 adolescents (57% female) were evaluated and interviewed at two time-points in São Gonçalo (2014-2019), a Brazilian city with high levels of violence. Exposure to CDV was assessed in both time-points. GrimAge acceleration was calculated from saliva DNA methylation using Infinium HumanMethylation450K (Illumina) collected in the first assessment. Heart rate variability (HRV) was collected during two stress tasks at the second assessment.Results: The exposure to violence witnessed or directly experienced at home and in the community increased significantly (t = 4.87, p < .01) across two-time points, and males had reported higher violence exposure (t = 2.06, p = .043). Violence at 1st assessment was significantly associated with GrimAge acceleration (B = .039, p value = .043). Violence at both assessments were associated with HRV measured during the narration of the worst trauma (traumaHRV) (B = .009, p value = .039, and B = .007, p value = .024, 1st and 2nd assessment respectively). GrimAge acceleration was significantly associated with traumaHRV (B = .043, p value = .049), and HRV measured during a 3D roller coaster video (B = .061, p value = .024).Conclusions: We found relevant evidence that experiencing violence during adolescence is associated with epigenetic aging and stress-related vagal activity. Understanding these factors during this period could contribute to the development of early interventions for health promotion.HIGHLIGHTS Higher exposure to Community and domestic violence is associated with increased GrimAge acceleration.Higher GrimAge acceleration is associated with increased stress-related vagal activity.Exposure to community and domestic violence increased significantly over time.

Background: International research has established that children and adolescents are at risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) as defined by the WHO ICD-11. There is a need for a Danish language version of the International Trauma Questionnaire - Child and Adolescent (ITQ-CA) to assess symptoms of PTSD and CPTSD.Objective: To test the ICD-11 formulations of PTSD and DSO (Disturbances of Self-Organization) using the ITQ-CA version in a sample of children exposed to abuse. Additionally, to study the distribution of symptoms and probable prevalence of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD among the population of children exposed to violence or sexual abuse.Method: Confirmatory factor analysis of competing models of the dimensionality of the ITQ-CA was tested among a sample of 119 children and adolescents that were referred to the Danish Children Centres on suspicion of physical or sexual abuse or both. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to study the distribution of symptoms and consequences of different operationalisations of functional impairment were explored.Results: Findings supported a two-factor second-order model corresponding to the operationalisation of CPTSD in ICD-11 as the best representation of the data. Findings from the LCA suggested that symptoms were distributed in a pattern consistent with the ICD-11 proposal for CPTSD. CPTSD was more prevalent than PTSD regardless of the operationalisation of functional impairment.Conclusion: ITQ-CA is a valid tool for identifying symptoms of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD among Danish children exposed to physical or sexual abuse. Further research is needed to study the relationship between ICD-11 C/PTSD symptomatology and anxiety and depression in this population.
The International Trauma Questionnaire – Child and Adolescent version (ITQ-CA) is a valid measure of symptoms of ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD among Danish children exposed to physical or sexual violence.The structure of the ITQ-CA in the Danish sample reflects the ICD-11 diagnostic algorithm.CPTSD is a more prevalent disorder among children recently exposed to violence than PTSD.

This article aims to reflect on the unconscious dynamics that sustain the shocking increase in feminicide in the world. It is observed that psychological and physical violence by the intimate partner has numerous facets, especially when the woman gains more or has more professional success than her partner. This violence can take a subtle form as rejection and betrayal in order to hurt the woman and destroy her self-esteem and success. Based on numerous studies and bibliography it is demonstrated that the main cause of violence by the intimate partner is the fear of the power of the feminine that has been present throughout history. Despite the evolution of women, historical violence reverberates in the 21st century as an intergenerational trauma causing great suffering in families and disturbances in interpersonal relationships.
Cet article vise à réfléchir aux dynamiques inconscientes qui sous-tendent l’accroissement choquant de féminicides dans le monde. On observe que la violence physique et psychologique par le mari ou le compagnon a de multiples facettes, particulièrement quand la femme gagne plus ou a plus de réussite professionnelle. Cette violence peut prendre la forme subtile de rejet et de trahison afin de blesser la femme et détruire son estime d’elle-même et son succès. En s’appuyant sur de nombreuses études et des travaux bibliographiques nous démontrons que la principale cause de violence par le mari ou le compagnon est la peur de la puissance du féminin, une peur qui est présente à travers toute l’histoire de l’humanité. Malgré l’évolution des femmes la violence historique retentit dans le 21ième siècle comme traumatisme intergénérationnel, produisant de grandes souffrances dans les familles et des perturbations dans les relations interpersonnelles.
Dieser Artikel zielt darauf ab, über die unbewußten Dynamiken nachzudenken, die den schockierenden Anstieg der Frauenmorde in der Welt aufrecht erhalten. Es wird beobachtet, daß psychische und physische Gewalt durch den Intimpartner viele Facetten hat, insbesondere wenn die Frau mehr beruflichen Erfolg erlangt oder hat als ihr Partner. Diese Gewalt kann eine subtile Form von Zurückweisung und Betrug annehmen, um die Frau zu verletzen und ihr Selbstwertgefühl und ihren Erfolg zu zerstören. Anhand zahlreicher Studien und Bibliographien wird nachgewiesen, daß die Hauptursache für Gewalt durch den Intimpartner die historisch präsente Angst vor der Macht des Weiblichen ist. Trotz der Entwicklung der Frauen hallt historische Gewalt im 21. Jahrhundert als intergenerationales Trauma nach, das großes Leid in den Familien und Störungen in zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen verursacht.
Questo articolo ha lo scopo di riflettere sulle dinamiche inconsce che sostengono lo sconvolgente aumento di femminicidi nel mondo. Si osserva che la violenza psicologica e fisica da parte del partner ha numerose sfaccettature, specialmente quando la donna guadagna di più o ha un maggiore successo professionale del partner. Questa violenza può assumere una forma subdola come il rifiuto e il tradimento al fine di ferire la donna e distruggere la sua autostima e il suo successo. Sulla base di numerosi studi viene dimostrato che la causa principale della violenza da parte del partner è la paura del potere della femminilità che è stata presente nel corso di tutta la storia. Nonostante l’evoluzione delle donne, la violenza riverbera nel XXI secolo come un trauma intergenerazionale causando grande sofferenza nelle famiglie e disturbi nelle relazioni interpersonali.
В статье отражена бессознательная динамика, которая поддерживает шокирующий рост феминицидов в мире. Замечено, что психологическое и физическое насилие со стороны интимного партнера имеет множество аспектов, особенно когда женщина добивается большего или имеет больше профессиональных успехов, чем ее партнер. Это насилие может принять тонкую форму отвержения и предательства, чтобы причинить женщине боль и разрушить ее самооценку и успех. На основании многочисленных исследований и библиографии показано, что основной причиной насилия со стороны интимного партнера является страх перед силой женского начала, присутствовавший на протяжении всей истории. Несмотря на эволюцию женщин, историческое насилие проявляется в 21 веке как межпоколенческая травма, приводящая к большим страданий в семьях и нарушению межличностных отношений.
Este artículo busca reflexionar sobre las dinámicas inconscientes que sostienen el impactante incremento de femicidios en el mundo. Se observa que la violencia psicológica y física ejercida por la pareja íntima tiene numerosas facetas, especialmente cuando la mujer gana más o tiene un mayor éxito profesional que su compañero. Esta violencia puede adquirir formas sutiles como el rechazo y la traición para lastimar a la mujer y destruir su autoestima y éxito. A partir de numerosos estudios y bibliografía se demuestra que la causa principal de violencia por un compañero íntimo es el miedo al poder del femenino presente a través de la historia. Aún la evolución de la mujer, la violencia histórica reverbera en el siglo XXI como un trauma intergeneracional causando grandes sufrimientos en las familias y perturbaciones en las relaciones interpersonales.
“奥斯卡诅咒”或女性发展的代价 本文旨在反思世界上持续的, 令人震惊的杀害女性行为的无意识动力。据观察, 亲密伴侣所实施的的心理和身体的暴力有很多面向, 特别是当女性比她的伴侣获益更多或事业更加成功的时候。这种暴力可以采取一种微妙的形式, 例如拒绝和背叛, 伤害女性并摧毁她的自尊和成功。基于大量研究和文献的参考可见, 亲密伴侣实施暴力的主要原因是对女性力量感到恐惧, 这在历史上一直有所展现。尽管女性不断进化, 历史性的暴力仍然回荡在21 世纪, 作为一种代际创伤, 造成家庭巨大的痛苦和人际关系紊乱。.
Este artigo tem como objetivo refletir sobre a dinâmica inconsciente que sustenta o aumento chocante do feminicídio no mundo. Observa-se que a violência psicológica e física pelo parceiro íntimo tem inúmeras facetas, especialmente quando a mulher ganha mais ou tem mais sucesso profissional do que seu parceiro. Essa violência pode assumir uma forma sutil como rejeição e traição, a fim de prejudicar a mulher e destruir sua autoestima e sucesso. Com base em inúmeros estudos e bibliografias, demonstra-se que a principal causa de violência pelo parceiro íntimo é o medo do poder do feminino que esteve presente ao longo da história. Apesar da evolução das mulheres, a violência histórica reverbera no século XXI como um trauma intergeracional causando grande sofrimento nas famílias e distúrbios nas relações interpessoais.

Although rates of violent crime have been on the decline in the United States for the past two decades, young people-and particularly young men-continue to commit and fall victim to alarmingly high rates of violence. Effective prevention requires data on what the determinants of violence are and when in the life course they emerge. The goal of this review was to identify early-in-life risk factors for violence and to describe (a) who is most affected and (b) effect mechanisms. I focus on abuse and neglect and exposure to lead as risk factors for violence that disproportionately affect young children and that are likely to have causal effects on development. I conclude with future directions for research and intervention.

Violence is a complex matter, and understandingly perhaps, it is the objective, behavioral aspects that are commonly focused on. Here, however, it is the subjective psychological and especially affective substrates of violence that are brought to the fore. Psychoanalytic perspectives provide a way of thinking about these that also sets them in a human-developmental context. In this essay, psychoanalytic ideas about aggression and violence are considered, and what they have to say about the relationship between states of mind and behavior is critically reviewed. There also is an exploration of the ways that some recent findings in developmental science and neuroscience can refine and augment an understanding of these relationships, facilitating the construction of a psychobiological model, which may be placed in a social context. From this biopsychosocial perspective, aggression is seen as a heuristic concept that encapsulates numerous interacting elements that in ordinary development integrate and serve to promote optimal organism survival: By contrast, from this perspective, in humans violence may be understood as a pathological variant of aggression.

Research is increasingly documenting a neurobiological basis to violence. This review takes a neurodevelopmental perspective on the very small group of males who grow up to become persistent violent offenders. After outlining six criteria for what constitutes a neurodevelopmental disorder, the extent to which chronic violence meets these definitional criteria is examined, covering the fields of genetics, structural and functional brain imaging, and neuropsychology. Early health risk factors for violence are then outlined, including birth complications, minor physical anomalies, prenatal smoking and alcohol exposure, poor nutrition, lead exposure, and traumatic brain injury. Persistent adult violence is argued to originate in aberrant temperamental behavior in early childhood, to have a stable developmental trajectory, and to be associated with impaired education, social, and occupational functioning. Taken together, it is argued that chronic adult violence meets criterion for being conceptualized as having neurodevelopmental origins and that an important, but not sole, source of neural maldevelopment lies in prenatal and early postnatal risk factors. This review concludes with a recognition of the sociopolitical context within which a neurodevelopmental perspective on chronic violence sits, together with directions for future research, including whether a neurodevelopmental hypothesis is best applied to reactive as opposed to proactive aggression.

Children with prenatal substance exposure are at increased risk for externalizing behavior problems and violence. However, the contribution of early life experiences for placing these individuals at risk is not well understood. Utilizing a sample of 1,388 children with prenatal substance exposure from the Maternal Lifestyle Study, we attempt to shed light on these contributing factors by examining the impact of infant temperament, maternal sensitivity, and early life stress on the expression of violent behavior at ages 12 through 14 years. Males may be more at risk for increases in violent behavior in early adolescence through a number of early life experiences, such as variability in responses to maternal flexibility and engagement related to individual differences in temperament, as well as exposure to early adversity. Comparing two prevailing developmental theoretical frameworks, deficit models and differential susceptibility, we aim to understand the developmental origins of violent behavior in males by identifying children who may be most susceptible to early caregiving experiences.