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Macronutrients of pulses or cereals are stored in the cotyledon or endosperm cells with protection from intact cell walls. However, pulses and cereals are generally processed into fine particles during food production. For example, after milling, the macronutrients enclosed in the intact cells are released and are easily accessible to digestive enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to high metabolic responses. Therefore, studies on the health effects of intact cells and developing an alternative ingredient with a higher proportion of intact cells are areas of emerging interest. In this review, we highlighted the smallest unit of whole grain, an individual cell, as \"nutritional capsules\" and elucidated the structure-function of the nutritional capsules, followed by isolation techniques, as a potential novel functional ingredient and food. The polysaccharides\' monomeric composition, secondary structure, and interactions determine the cell wall properties including the cell detachment during isolation and isolated cell properties. The intact cellular structure is retained after mild food processing and digestion, thereby, contributing to a lower extent/rate of digestion of entrapped macronutrients. Furthermore, the excursed intact capsules in the colonic environment modulate the population and diversity of microbiota, favouring the increased production of the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The structural schematic model of Type-I and Type-II cells is developed together with the schematics of the cell wall isolation process. The review provides a critical summary of the recent trends in intact plant cells as a functional-nutritional food. It paves the way for the industrial production of intact cells as a novel food ingredient.

BACKGROUND: Cowpea is a crop widely used in developing countries due its rusticity. Besides its rich genotypic variability, most breeding programs do not explore its potential to improve elements uptake. Selenium (Se) is a scarce element in most soils, resulting in its deficiency being common in human diets. This study aimed to evaluate the interaction between biofortification with Se and genotypic variation in cowpea, on the concentrations of Se in roots, leaves + stem and grains.
METHODS: Twenty-nine cowpea genotypes were grown in a greenhouse in the absence (control) and presence of Se (12.5 μg Se kg-1 soil) as sodium selenate, in fully randomized scheme. The plants were cultivated until grains harvest. The following variables were determined: roots dry weight (g), leaves + stems dry weight (g), grains dry weight (g), Se concentration (mg kg-1) in roots, leaves + stems and grains, and Se partitioning to shoots and grains.
RESULTS: Selenium application increased the Se concentration in roots, leaves + stems and grains in all genotypes. At least twofold variation in grain Se concentration was observed among genotypes. Selenium application did not impair biomass accumulation, including grain dry weight. Genotype \"BRS Guariba\" had the largest Se concentration in grains and leaves + stems. Genotype MNC04-795 F-158 had the largest partitioning of Se to shoots and grain, due to elevated dry weights of leaves + stems and grain, and high Se concentrations in these tissues.
CONCLUSIONS: This information might be valuable in future breeding programs to select for genotypes with better abilities to accumulate Se in grain to reduce widespread human Se undernutrition.

Starch digestion in pulse cellular matrices is primarily determined by the hindrance of cell walls limiting enzyme diffusion as well as the retention of starch granular structure. However, the effect of hydrothermal treatment on structure and digestion properties of entrapped pulse starches is not fully elucidated. In present study, we reported the variations in structure and enzyme susceptibility of pulse cells isolated at 60 °C followed by heated at 70, 80, 90, 100 °C, which were higher than the starch gelatinization temperature. Based on the thermal and crystalline properties, entrapped starches in pulse cells were not fully gelatinized even treated at 100 °C. Whilst, the digestion of entrapped pulse starches increased with higher temperature, but still much lower than the isolated starch treated at the same temperature. In addition to physical barriers (intact cell wall) and starch structural features (partial ordered crystalline structure), the soluble/insoluble proteinaceous materials in cells also synergistically reduced the starch digestibility.

Enzyme digestion of starch granules encapsulated within cell walls in pulse depends on both the intactness of cellular structure as well as the retention of the ordered structure of starch during processing. However, the role of cell wall permeability in starch digestion, as affected by processing conditions, has not been fully elucidated. In this study, Kubali bean cells were isolated under different processing conditions (i.e., high pressure-heating, hydrothermal processing, and acid-alkali treatments) individually and in combinations to elucidate the structure and in vitro digestion of entrapped starches in the cells. The morphological features and crystalline structure of entrapped starches suggest that intact cell walls hinder the starch gelatinization, which in turn lowers the enzyme susceptivity. Alteration of cell wall permeability induced by different processing conditions is further evaluated through the diffusion of fluorescence-tagged dextran probes. Among all the treatments, cells isolated with the pressure-cooking method exhibited higher cell wall permeability. The study suggests that the in vitro starch digestion of plant foods can be optimized through the selection of processing method that has the least impact on cell wall permeability.

Pulses are the second most important source of food for humans after cereals. They hold an important position in human nutrition. They are rich source of proteins, complex carbohydrates, essential vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals and are low in lipids. Pulses are also considered the most suitable for preparing protein ingredients (concentrates and isolates) because of their high protein content, wide acceptability and low cost. In addition, pulse proteins exhibit functional properties (foaming and emulsification, water and fat absorption and gelation) as well as nutraceutical/health benefiting-properties which makes them healthier and low cost alternative to conventional protein sources like soy, wheat and animals. Proteins from different pulses (beans, peas, lentils, cowpeas, chickpeas, pigeon peas, etc.) differ in their composition and structure hence for finished product suitability. Therefore, this article aimed to review composition, structure-function relationship and current applications of different pulse proteins in the food industry.

Health benefits associated with pea consumption have been attributed to the fiber and polyphenolic content concentrated within the pea seed coat. However, the amount of pea polyphenols can vary between cultivars, and it has yet to be studied whether pea polyphenols impact the intestinal microbiota. We hypothesized that pea polyphenols promote a healthy microbiome that supports intestinal integrity and pathogen colonization resistance. To investigate the effects of pea polyphenols, pea cultivars rich and poor in proanthocyanidins were supplemented in raw or acid hydrolyzed form to an isocaloric diet in mice. Acid hydrolysis increases the absorption of pea polyphenols by cleaving polymeric proanthocyanidins to their readily absorbable anthocyanidin monomers. After 3 weeks of diet, mice were challenged with Citrobacter rodentium and pathogen colonization and inflammation were assessed. Counter to our hypothesis, pea seed coat fraction supplementation, especially the non-hydrolyzed proanthocyanidin-rich fraction diet adversely increased C. rodentium pathogen load and inflammation. Ileal, cecal and colon microbial communities were notably distinct between pea seed cultivar and hydrolysis processing. The consumption of intact proanthocyanidins decreased microbial diversity indicating that proanthocyanidins have antimicrobial properties. Together our results indicate supplementation of raw pea seed coat rich in proanthocyanidins adversely affect intestinal integrity. However, acid hydrolysis processing restored community structure and colonization resistance, and the anthocyanidin-rich fractions reduced weight gain on a high fat diet. Establishing a clear understanding of the effects of pea fiber and polyphenolic form on health will help to develop research-based pea products and dietary recommendations.