Dairy cows may suffer thermal stress during the colder seasons especially due to their open-air housing systems. Free water temperature (FWT) and feed temperature (FT) are dependent on ambient temperature (AT) and can be critical for maintaining body and reticulorumen temperature (RT) in cold conditions. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of FWT and FT on RT fluctuations, and of AT on RT and drinking and eating behaviors in late-lactation cows during cold exposure. Data were collected from 16 multiparous lactating cows for four 6-d periods during the autumn and winter seasons. The cows (224 ± 36 days in milk; mean ± SD) had an average milk yield (MY) of 24.8 ± 4.97 kg/d and RT of 38.84 ± 0.163 °C. Daily average AT ranged from 4.38 to 17.25 °C. The effects of the temperature and amount of the ingested water or feed on RT change and recovery time, and the effect of the daily AT on RT, feed and water intake, and drinking, eating, and rumination behaviors were analyzed using the generalized additive mixed model framework. Reticulorumen temperature change and recovery time were affected by FWT (+0.0596 °C/°C and -1.27 min/°C, respectively), but not by FT. The amount of the ingested free water and feed affected RT change (-0.108 °C/kg drink size and -0.150 °C/kg meal size, respectively), and RT recovery time (+2.13 min/kg drink size and + 3.71 min/kg meal size, respectively). Colder AT decreased RT by 0.0151 °C/°C between 9.91 and 17.25 °C AT. Cows increased DM intake (DMI) by 0.365 kg/d per 1 °C drop in AT below 10.63 °C, but with no increase in MY. In fact, MY:DMI decreased by 0.0106/°C as AT dropped from 17.25 to 4.38 °C. Free water intake (FWI) was reduced by 0.0856 FWI:DMI/°C as AT decreased from 17.25 to 8.27 °C. Cold exposure influenced animal behavior with fewer drink and meal bouts (-0.432 and -0.290 bouts/d, respectively), larger drink sizes (+0.100 kg/bout), and shorter rumination time (-5.31 min/d) per 1 °C decrease in AT from 17.25 °C to 8.77, 12.53, 4.38, and 10.32 °C, respectively. In conclusion, exposure to low AT increased feed intake, reduced water intake, and changes in eating, drinking and rumination behaviors of dairy cows in late lactation. Additionally, the consequences of cold exposure on cows may be aggravated by ingestion of feed and free water at temperatures lower than the body, potentially impacting feed efficiency due to the extra energetic cost of thermoregulation.

Intense urban development and high urban density cause the thermal environment in urban centers to deteriorate continuously, affecting the quality of the living environment. In this study, 707.49 hectares of land in the central area of Changsha were divided into 121 plots. 11 microclimate-related morphological indicators were comprehensively selected, and the K-means method was used for cluster analysis. Then, the relationship between morphological clusters and the thermal environment was explored by simulating the thermal environment of the study area with ENVI-met. First, five spatial types were found to characterize the area: high-level with high floor area ratio, low density, and low greenery; middle-level with high floor area ratio high density; medium-capacity with high density and small volume; low-level with low density and high greenery; and low floor area ratio, low density, and high greenery. Second, the building windward surface density, sky openness, building density, floor area ratio and green space rate affect the thermal environment. Third, Cluster3 had the highest average air temperature (Ta), followed by Cluster5, furthermore Clusters4, 1, and2 had relatively low Ta. The spatial vitality index and green space rate in Cluster1; the area-weighted building shape index, average building volume and sky openness in Cluster2; green space rate in Cluster3; indicators such as the floor area ratio and green space rate in Cluster4; indicators such as the impervious surface rate and green space rate in Cluster5 had greater influences on Ta. Fourthly, simply increasing the area of green space cannot maximize the cooling effect of green spaces. Instead, constructing an equalized greening network can better regulate the thermal environment. Fifthly, the results provide a scientific basis for the design and the regulation of urban centers.

The urban thermal environment undergoes significant influences from changes in land use/land cover (LULC). This article uses CA-ANN and ANN algorithms to forecast LULC and changes in the urban thermal environment in Nanjing for the years 2030 and 2040. It investigates the interplay between LULC changes, land surface temperature (LST), and the urban thermal field variance index (UTFVI). The findings reveal that urban land exhibited a significant expansion trend from 2000 to 2019, reaching 1083.43 km2 in 2019. The forecast indicates that urban land may increase by 8.79% and 10.92% by 2030 and 2040, respectively. Conversely, vegetation and bare land may decrease. The LST is likely to continue to rise, accompanied by a significant expansion of the high temperature range and a contraction of the low temperature range. By 2030 and 2040, the area with LST<20 °C is likely to decrease by 2.17% and 3.19%, while the area with LST>30 °C is likely to expand by 5.68% and 8.08%, respectively. The UTFVI area of urban land may decrease at none and middle levels but may notably expand at stronger and strongest levels. The areas with UTFVI at none, weak, and middle levels show a declining trend, while the increase in UTFVI at the strong level may exceed 46.29% and the strongest level of UTFVI may continue to expand. This study offers new insights into urban sustainable development and thermal environment governance.

Vertical greenery system (VGS) is a sustainable solution to promote building energy saving and emission reduction, mitigate the urban heat island effect, as well as a crucial component of urban ecological construction. We summarized four main mechanisms of the thermal effects of VGSs, including shading effect, evapotranspiration effect, thermal insulation effect, and wind control effect. We elucidated the effects of VGSs on building cooling and energy saving, and analyzed the cooling effects of VGSs on plant canopy and outdoor ambient air, as well as their influence on mitigating the urban heat island effect. Based on available research on the thermal effects of VGSs, we identified key directions for future research, aiming to expedite the development of green cities and achieve carbon neutrality.
垂直绿化系统是促进建筑节能减排和缓解城市热岛效应的可持续方案,也是实现城市生态建设的重要途径之一。本文系统归纳了垂直绿化系统热效应的4个主要的影响机理,即遮阳作用、蒸散作用、隔热作用和控风作用,阐明垂直绿化对建筑降温节能的影响,并分析垂直绿化对植物冠层和周围空气的降温效应以及对缓解热岛效应的影响。最后,基于已有的垂直绿化热效应研究,提出未来垂直绿化研究的重点方向,旨在加快绿色城市建设的进程和实现碳中和目标。.

The rapid and extensive urbanization has profound impacts on urban thermal environment. It is of great significance to comprehensively understand how urbanization affects the evolution of urban thermal environment for urban ecological safety, environmental quality, and residents\' health. Based on daily land surface temperature (LST) products of MODIS Aqua satellite in the summer of 2002-2020, we investigated the evolution of urban-rural differences in surface summer thermal environment in Shanghai during 2002-2020 and its response to urban spatial renewal. We used normalized land surface temperature (NLST) and urban heat island ratio index (URI) as the surface thermal environment measurement indicators, by combining vegetation index and impervious surface cove-rage, and used M-K trend analysis and interpretation analysis. The results showed that the linear growth rate of LST in Shanghai was 0.09 ℃·a-1 (2002-2020), and that URI showed a trend of first increasing (2002-2010) and then decreasing (2010-2020). The mean summer LST was generally in the order of urban core>suburban>rural. 1.6% of the areas showed a significant cooling trend, of which 54.0% were distributed in the urban core. 39.5% of the regions showed a significant warming trend, of which 77.6% were distributed in the suburban. In general, there were concentrated significant cooling areas in the highly urbanized urban areas, while there was a significant warming trend in the suburban. The transformation from urban expansion to urban renewal was the main reason for the emergence of concentrated and significant cooling areas in the urban. Nearly 20% of the urban area showed a signi-ficant increase of vegetation coverage. Urban renewal projects such as gathering vegetation or dispersing impervious surfaces in highly urbanized areas are important ways to effectively improve the urban residential thermal environment.
快速而广泛的城市化过程对城市热环境产生了深刻影响,全面了解城市化进程如何影响城市热环境演变及其趋势差异对于城市生态安全、环境质量及居民健康等具有重要意义。本研究基于MODIS Aqua卫星2002—2020年夏季逐日白天地表温度产品,结合遥感植被指数和不透水面覆盖信息,使用归一化地表温度和热岛比例系数作为地表热环境衡量指标,利用M-K趋势检验和解释度分析,探究上海市城市化进程中夏季地表热环境演变趋势的城乡差异及其对城市空间更新的响应。结果表明: 2002—2020年,上海市地表温度线性增长率为0.09 ℃·a-1,热岛比例系数呈先上升(2002—2010年)后下降(2010—2020年)的变化趋势。上海市夏季平均地表温度总体呈现中心城区>新城区>农郊区的特征。2002—2020年,1.6%的区域表现出显著降温趋势,其中54.0%分布在中心城区;39.5%的区域表现为显著增温趋势,其中77.6%分布在新城区。上海高度城市化的中心城区出现集中的显著降温区域,而在其他区域尤其是新城区表现为显著增温趋势。上海从城市扩张向城市空间更新的转变是中心城区出现集中显著降温区域的主要原因,中心城区近20%的区域表现为植被覆盖显著增加,不透水面和植被对热环境的影响几乎一致,表明在高度城市化发展地区开展聚集植被或分散不透水面等城市空间更新项目,是有效改善城市人居热环境的重要方式和手段。.

The comfort level of outdoor thermal environments is affected by several factors. Previous studies of thermal comfort have generally investigated the main microclimatic factors as dependent variables, such as the temperature, wind speed, humidity, and thermal radiation, but the influence of the air quality has rarely been explored. In this study, we acquired meteorological element observations and conducted questionnaire surveys in Peach Blossom Park, Hebei University of Technology, and Xigu Park in Tianjin. We analyzed the effects of the outdoor air quality and thermal environment on the thermal comfort in order to provide a theoretical basis for comprehensive evaluations of the outdoor environment and the mechanism. The results showed that thermal resistance of clothing and ambient temperature followed a negative step change, where people generally reduced the minimum amount of clothing when the temperature exceeded 28 °C. One unit change in the thermal sensation vote (TSV) occurred for every 11 °C rise in the physiological equivalent temperature (PET). The neutral PET was 21.68 °C, and the comfortable PET was about 23 °C. The air quality index (AQI) and air satisfaction were negatively correlated, and satisfaction decreased by 1 unit for every change of 230 AQI. The transitional season was most comfortable when the temperature felt slightly cool (TSV = -0.70). The neutral TSV was 0.507 in the summer and -0.334 in the winter. Air quality had a significant effect on the thermal comfort vote (TCV) (p = 0.0485 < 0.05). The effect of PET on TCV was highly significant (p < 0.01).

Previous studies have shown that tree arrangement provides effective regulation of the outdoor thermal environment and combats the urban heat island (UHI) effect. To further explore semi-outdoor thermal environment improvement using tree arrangement, we selected two common arbor species from Guangdong Province, namely, Lagerstroemia speciosa and Bombax ceiba. We discuss the influence of courtyard tree arrangements on the thermal environment of semi-outdoor spaces (courtyards and overhead spaces) of a teaching building in a hot-humid area. The ENVI-met model was used and verified with field measurements; the universal thermal climate index (UTCI) was used as an index to evaluate the thermal environment of semi-outdoor spaces. We found that (1) adjusting the distance between trees and buildings reduced the UTCI values by 0.4 (overhead spaces) and 0.8 ℃ (courtyards); and (2) when the distance between the arbor and the building is fixed, the UTCI values of arranging Lagerstroemia speciosa can be reduced by up to 0.5 (overhead spaces) and 1.0 ℃ (courtyards) compared to that of Bombax ceiba; this study provides practical suggestions for the layout of trees in semi-outdoor spaces of teaching buildings in the hot-humid areas of China.

Due to energy constraints and people\'s increasing requirements for indoor thermal comfort, improving energy efficiency while ensuring thermal comfort has become the focus of research in the design and operation of HVAC systems. This study took office rooms with few people occupying them in Wuhan as the research object. The EnergyPlus-Fluent co-simulation method was used to study the impact of 12 forms of air distribution on the thermal environment and air-conditioner energy consumption. The results indicate that 3 m/s supply air velocity and 45° supply air angle are more suitable for the case model in this study. The EnergyPlus-Fluent co-simulation method used in this paper provides a reference for the study of indoor environments in offices with few people occupying them.

With the continuous expansion of cities, the land cover type of the region is transformed, a large number of natural landscapes are replaced by man-made landscapes, and the environmental temperature rises. The study of the response relationship between urban spatial pattern and thermal environment provides some guidance for improving the ecological environment and optimizing the urban spatial layout. Based on the Landsat 8 series remote sensing image data of Hefei City in 2020 and analysis platforms such as ENVI and ARCGIS, Pearson correlation and profile lines were used to reflect the correlation between the two. Then, the three spatial pattern components with the greatest correlation were selected to construct multiple regression functions to investigate the influence of urban spatial pattern on urban thermal environment and its mechanism of action. The results showed that:① the high temperature area of Hefei City increased significantly with the advance of time during 2013-2020. For different seasons, the urban heat island effect showed that summer>autumn>spring>winter. ② In the central urban area, the building occupancy, building height, imperviousness occupancy, and population density were significantly higher than those in the suburbs, whereas fractional vegetation coverage presented a higher suburban than urban area and mainly showed a point distribution in the urban area and an irregular distribution of water bodies. ③ The urban high-temperature zone was mainly distributed in various development zones in urban areas, whereas other places in urban areas were dominated by medium-high temperature and above-temperature zoning, and suburban areas were dominated by medium-low temperature. ④ The Pearson coefficients between the spatial pattern of each element and the thermal environment were positively correlated with the building occupancy (0.395), impervious surface occupancy (0.333), population density (0.481), and building height (0.188) and negatively correlated with fractional vegetation coverage (-0.577) and water occupancy (-0.384). The coefficients of the constructed multiple regression functions, including building occupancy, population density, and fractional vegetation coverage, were 8.372, 0.295, and -5.639 respectively, with a constant of 38.555. The results of this study can provide a reference basis for optimizing urban spatial layouts and improving urban living quality.

Objective: To evaluate the thermal environment of different types of public places and the thermal comfort of employees, so as to provide scientific basis for the establishment of microclimate standards and health supervision requirements. Methods: From June 2019 to December 2021, 50 public places (178 times) of 8 categories in Wuxi were selected, including hotels, swimming pools (gymnasiums), bathing places, shopping malls (supermarkets), barber shops, beauty shops, waiting rooms (bus station) and gyms. In summer and winter, microclimate indicators such as temperature and wind speed were measured in all kinds of places, combined with the work attire and physical activity of employees in the places. Fanger thermal comfort equation and center for the built environment (CBE) thermal comfort calculation tool were used to evaluate the predicted mean vote (PMV), predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD) and standard effective temperature (SET) according to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 55-2020. The modification effects of seasonal and temperature control conditions on thermal comfort were analyzed. The consistency of GB 37488-2019 \"Hygienic Indicators and Limits in Public Places\" and ASHRAE 55-2020 evaluation results on thermal environment was compared. Results: The thermal sensation of hotel, barber shop staff and the gym front-desk staff were moderate, while the thermal sensation of swimming place lifeguard, bathing place cleaning staff and gym trainer were slightly warm in summer and winter. Waiting room (bus station) cleaning and working staff, shopping mall staff felt slightly warm in summer and moderate in winter. Service staff in bathing places felt slightly warm in winter, while staff in beauty salons felt slightly cool in winter. The thermal comfort compliance of hotel cleaning staff and shopping mall staff in summer was lower than that in winter (χ(2)=7.01, 7.22, P=0.008, 0.007). The thermal comfort compliance of shopping mall staff in the condition of air conditioning off was higher than that in the condition of air conditioning on (χ(2)=7.01, P=0.008). The SET values of front-desk staff in hotels with different health supervision levels were significantly different (F=3.30, P=0.024). The PPD value and SET value of the front-desk staff, and the PPD value of cleaning staff of hotels above three stars were lower than those of hotels below three stars (P<0.05). The thermal comfort compliance of front-desk staff and cleaning staff in hotels above three stars was higher than that in hotels below three stars (χ(2)=8.33, 8.09, P=0.016, 0.018). The consistency of the two criteria was highest among waiting room (bus station) staff (100.0%, 1/1) and lowest among gym front-desk staff (0%, 0/2) and waiting room (bus station) cleaning staff (0%, 0/1) . Conclusion: There are different degrees of thermal discomfort in different seasons, under the condition of air conditioning and health supervision, and the microclimate indicators can not fully reflect the thermal comfort of human body. The health supervision of microclimate should be strengthened, the applicability of health standard limit value should be evaluated in many aspects, and the thermal comfort of occupational group should be improved.
目的： 评价不同类别公共场所热环境以及从业人员的热舒适度，为微小气候的标准制定和卫生监督要求提供科学依据。 方法： 于2019年6月至2021年12月，选取无锡市8大类公共场所共50家（178家次），包括宾馆（酒店）、游泳场（馆）、沐浴场所、商场（超市）、理发店、美容店、候车室、健身房。分别在夏季和冬季测定各类场所温度、风速等微小气候指标，结合场所从业人员工作着装和体力活动情况。应用Fanger热舒适方程和CBE热舒适计算工具，按照美国采暖制冷和空调工程师协会（ASHRAE）55-2020标准，评价预期平均评价指标（PMV）、预测不满意百分数（PPD）和标准有效温度（SET）等热舒适指标，并分析季节、调温状态等因素对热舒适度的修饰效应。比较GB 37488-2019《公共场所卫生指标及限值要求》与ASHRAE 55-2020对热环境评价结果的一致性情况。 结果： 宾馆、理发场所工作人员和健身房前台工作人员热感觉适中，而游泳场所救生员、沐浴场所保洁人员和健身房教练等夏冬季热感觉均为稍暖。候车室保洁和工作人员、商场工作人员在夏季热感觉稍暖，冬季热感觉适中；沐浴场所服务人员在冬季感觉稍暖，美容场所工作人员在冬季感觉稍凉。夏季宾馆保洁人员和商场工作人员的热舒适符合度均低于冬季（χ(2)=7.01、7.22，P=0.008、0.007）。空调关闭状态下商场工作人员的热舒适符合度高于空调开启状态（χ(2)=7.01，P=0.008）。不同卫生监督量化分级等级宾馆前台工作人员SET值差异有统计学意义（F=3.30，P=0.024）。三星级及以上宾馆前台工作人员的PPD值、SET值，以及宾馆保洁人员的PPD值均低于三星级以下宾馆（P<0.05）；三星级及以上宾馆前台工作人员和保洁人员的热舒适符合度均高于三星级以下宾馆（χ(2)=8.33、8.09，P=0.016、0.018）。两项标准评价各类场所热环境的一致性在候车室工作人员（100.0%，1/1）中最高，而健身房前台（0%，0/2）和候车室保洁人员（0%，0/1）中最低。 结论： 各类公共场所从业人员在不同季节、空调调温状态和卫生监督量化分级等级下存在不同程度的热不舒适情况，而微小气候指标不能完全反映人体的热舒适度情况。应加强对微小气候的卫生监督，多方面评估卫生标准限值的适用性，提高职业人群的热舒适度。.