Objective: To observe the recurrence condition of hepatitis B in different risk groups after liver transplantation in an attempt to provide useful information on whether to discontinue hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) in the future at an early stage. Methods: The patient population was divided into high, low-risk, and special groups [especially primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)] according to the guidelines for the prevention and treatment of hepatitis B recurrence after liver transplantation. The recurrence condition and risk factors in this population were observed for hepatitis B. Measurement data were analyzed using a t-test and a rank-sum test. Count data were compared using a χ(2) test between groups. Results: This study finally included 532 hepatitis B-related liver transplant cases. A total of 35 cases had HBV recurrence after liver transplantation, including 34 cases that were HBsAg positive, one case that was HBsAg negative, and 10 cases that were hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA positive. The overall HBV recurrence rate was 6.6%. The recurrence rate of HBV was 9.2% and 4.8% in the high- and low-risk HBV DNA positive and negative groups before surgery (P = 0.057). Among the 293 cases diagnosed with HCC before liver transplantation, 30 had hepatitis B recurrence after surgery, with a recurrence rate of 10.2%. The independent related factors for the recurrence of hepatitis B in patients with HCC after liver transplantation were HCC recurrence (HR =181.92, 95%CI 15.99~2 069.96, P < 0.001), a high postoperative dose of mycophenolate mofetil dispersible tablets (MMF) ( HR =5.190, 95%CI 1.289~20.889, P = 0.020), and a high dosage of HBIG (HR = 1.012, 95%CI 1.001~1.023, P = 0.035). Among the 239 cases who were non-HCC before liver transplantation, five cases (recurrence rate of 2.1%) arouse postoperative hepatitis B recurrence. Lamivudine was used in all cases, combined with on-demand HBIG prophylaxis after surgery. There was no hepatitis B recurrence in non-HCC patients who treated with entecavir combined with HBIG after surgery. Conclusion: High-barrier-to-resistance nucleotide analogues combined with long-term HBIG have a good effect on preventing the recurrence of hepatitis B after liver transplantation. The discontinuation of HBIG may be considered at an early stage after administration of a high-barrier-to-resistance nucleotide analogue in low-risk patients. Domestically, the HBV infection rate is high, so further research is still required to explore the timing of HBIG discontinuation for high-risk patients, especially those with HCC.
目的： 观察不同风险人群在肝移植术后乙型肝炎的复发情况，为以后是否早期停用乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白(HBIG)提供有用信息。 方法： 根据肝移植术后乙型肝炎复发防治指南分为高、低风险人群及特殊人群[尤其原发性肝细胞癌(HCC)]，观察这部分人群乙型肝炎复发情况及复发的危险因素。计量资料组间比较采用t检验、秩和检验；计数资料组间比较采用χ(2)检验。 结果： 最终纳入532例乙型肝炎相关肝移植患者。肝移植术后共35例出现HBV复发，其中HBsAg阳性34例，HBsAg阴性1例，乙型肝炎病毒(HBV) DNA阳性10例。乙型肝炎总的复发率为6.6%。术前HBV DNA阳性的高风险人群乙型肝炎的复发率为9.2%，HBV DNA阴性低风险人群的复发率为4.8% (P = 0.057)。肝移植术前诊断为HCC的293例患者中术后30例出现乙型肝炎复发，复发率为10.2%。HCC患者肝移植术后乙型肝炎复发的独立相关因素为HCC复发(HR = 181.92, 95%CI 15.99～2 069.96, P < 0.001)、术后吗替麦考酚酯分散片(MMF)剂量高(HR = 5.190, 95%CI 1.289～20.889, P = 0.020)和HBIG用量大(HR = 1.012, 95%CI 1.001～1.023, P = 0.035)。肝移植术前非HCC的239例患者中5例患者出现术后乙型肝炎复发(复发率为2.1%)，均为术后应用拉米夫定联合按需HBIG预防治疗的患者，术后恩替卡韦联合HBIG的非HCC患者没有乙型肝炎复发。 结论： 肝移植术后高耐药屏障核苷酸类似物联合长期HBIG预防乙型肝炎复发效果好。对于低风险患者给予高耐药屏障核苷酸类似物后可考虑早期停用HBIG；对于高风险患者，特别是HCC的高风险患者，国内HBV感染率高，尚需进一步研究探索HBIG停药时机。.

The extent to which maternal antibodies against the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAb) acquired transplacentally affect the immune responses to the hepatitis B vaccine (HBVac) in infants is still uncertain.
To explore the impact of the HBsAb on the immune response to the HBVac in a mouse model.
According to the doses of the HBVac (2, 5 μg) injected, 267 BALB/c mice were divided into two groups. Each group was subdivided into 3 subgroups based on the doses of the hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) (0, 25, 50 IU) administered. The HBsAb titers were detected 4 weeks after completing the HepB vaccination.
Among all the mice, 40 had an HBsAb titer <100 mIU/mL (non- or low-response to the HBVac). The rates of the HBsAb titer <100 mIU/mL in 0, 25 and 50 IU HBIG groups were 1.1%, 23.1%, and 20.7%, respectively. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the risk factors for low- or non-response to the HBVac were injection with the HBIG, low HBVac dose, and hypodermic injection. The mean HBsAb titers (log10) reduced gradually in the 0, 25 and 50 IU HBIG groups (P<0.001).
The HBIG administration has negative impacts on the peak level of the HBsAb and the rate of an effective immune response. This implies that the maternal HBsAb acquired transplacentally might inhibit the immune responses to the HBVac in infants.

UNASSIGNED: Vertical mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) remains an important issue. Timely administration of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and of the HBV vaccine is effective in preventing MTCT in infants born to HBV-infected mothers. However, HBIG is often not easily available in low-income countries or regions.
UNASSIGNED: We compared in a retrospective cohort study the HBV vaccine efficacy alone and in combination with HBIG in preventing vertical MTCT in infants born to HBeAg-negative carrier mothers in Jiangsu province, China. Based on the administration of the HBV vaccine and HBIG shortly after birth, children were divided into two groups: Group 1, administration of the HBV vaccine alone, and Group 2, concurrent use of HBIG and of the HBV vaccine.
UNASSIGNED: A total of 620 infants born to HBeAg-negative carrier mothers were enrolled into this study. Group 1 included 195 children who had received the HBV vaccine alone after birth, and Group 2, 425 children who had received both HBIG and the HBV vaccine. Children were followed up to the age of 68 and 42 months, respectively. MTCT of HBV occurred in 0% (0/195) in Group 1 (HBV vaccine alone) and 0% (0/425) in Group 2 (HBV vaccine and HBIG) (p = 1.00).
UNASSIGNED: In this retrospective cohort study, we found that HBV vaccination alone shortly after birth was effective in preventing MTCT of HBV in infants born to HBeAg-negative carrier mothers.

Objectives: China has implemented universal hepatitis B vaccination since 2002 and provided charge-free hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) to infants of HBV-infected mothers since July 2011. We aimed to compare mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) in children born before and since July 2011.Methods: In total, 5,149 children of HBV-infected mothers were tested for HBV markers. Group one contained 1,160 children born during August 2002-June 2011 and group two contained 3,989 children born during July 2011-June 2016.Results: In total, 92 (1.8%, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.4-2.2) children were infected with HBV. None (0%, 95%CI 0.0-0.1) of 3,716 children of mothers with negative hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) was infected, whereas 92 (6.4%, 95%CI 5.2-7.8) of 1,433 children of HBeAg-positive mothers were infected (p < 0.0001). Among children of HBeAg-positive mothers, MTCT occurred in 10.3% (19/185) (95%CI 6.3-15.6) in group one and 5.8% (73/1,248) (95%CI 4.6-7.3) in group two (p = 0.02).Conclusions: Implementing charge-free active-passive immunoprophylaxis greatly reduces MTCT of HBV in children of HBeAg-positive mothers, highlighting the importance of timely administration of both hepatitis B vaccine and HBIG to prevent MTCT. The still remaining MTCT suggests that reducing maternal virus load before delivery is an additional important measure.

Recently, the Society of Infectious Diseases of Chinese Medical Association and Chinese GRADE Center jointly released the \"2019 Chinese practice guideline for the prevention and treatment of hepatitis B virus mother-to-child transmission\" . We concerned several issues in the Guideline, including the improper citation of some references, no recommendations for some key strategies for the prevention of hepatitis B virus mother-to-child transmission, insufficient or even lack of evidence for some recommendations and others. Based on the principle of academic contention, we present in this article our comments on the Guideline to discuss these issues with the Guideline\'s authors and readers.
中华医学会感染病学分会和GRADE中国中心最近发布了《中国乙型肝炎病毒母婴传播防治指南（2019年版）》。该指南存在参考文献引用不当，对预防乙型肝炎病毒母婴传播的部分关键策略缺乏推荐意见，部分推荐意见证据不足或缺乏证据等问题。本着学术争鸣原则，现对该指南提出一些管见，愿与作者和读者商榷。.

The safety and necessity of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) in preventing the mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV) are still controversial because of its unclear mechanism of action and the inconsistent injection programs used during gestation.
This study aimed to show the dynamic transportation and distribution of HBIG in the maternal body and to provide evidence for its clinical efficacy in preventing mother-to-child HBV transmission.
Pregnant mice were injected with Cy7-labeled mouse anti-human monoclonal hepatitis B surface antibodies through the tail vein. In vivo imaging technology was used to observe the dynamic transportation and distribution of HBIG in the pregnant mice.
HBIG fluorescence signals were higher in the uterus than in the liver, spleen, and kidneys. Fluorescence signals in the uterine region were obviously higher at the third trimester than at early and mid pregnancy.
HBIG is gradually deposited in the mouse placenta during pregnancy, with the phenomenon being more significant in the third trimester.

The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of antepartum administration of three doses of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) in interrupting mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of hepatitis B virus (HBV). In this trial, a total of 728 HBeAg-positive pregnant women with chronic HBV infection who had an HBV DNA level higher than 6log10  copies/mL were enrolled. They were divided into three groups based on individual preference. Subjects in group A and group B received 200 IU (unit) HBIG and 400 IU (unit) HBIG intramuscularly once a month at the third, second and first month before delivery, respectively. Subjects in the control group (C) received no special treatment. All the infants received passive-active immunoprophylaxis. The HBsAg-positive rate of all infants at 7-12 months of age was 5.1% (37/728). Specifically, the HBsAg-positive rate of infants was comparable in all three groups (5.3% vs 5.1% vs 5%, P = 0.988). No significant difference was found in anti-HBs levels between the infants aged 7-12 months in the three groups (P = 0.469). HBV DNA levels of the umbilical cord blood in the HBV-infected group were higher than those in the uninfected group (5.2 vs 3.4log10  copies/mL, P < 0.001), and these with family history of HBV infection were also higher (45.9% vs 28.5%, P = 0.034). To conclude, administration of passive-active immunoprophylaxis to infants contributed to effective prevention of the MTCT of HBV; extra antepartum administration of HBIG during pregnancy could not decrease the rate of MTCT or increase the anti-HBs levels of infants born to HBsAg-positive mothers with HBV DNA higher than 6log10  copies/mL.

To eliminate viral hepatitis as a public health threat, the World Health Organization has set the ambitious goal of reducing the prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in children to 0.1% by 2030, and the key to this grand goal is cutting off hepatitis B virus (HBV) transmission from mother-to-child. Previously, national and international guidelines for the management of chronic hepatitis B recommended the use of hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) or combination of any in neonates and antiviral drugs for pregnant women with high viral load in late pregnancy. However, a recent study in Thailand found that the addition of antiviral drugs in pregnant women with high viral load in the third trimester did not significantly lower the incidence of mother-to-child HBV transmission, but no case of chronic HBV infection was seen with strict standards hepatitis B vaccine and HBIG combined immunoprophylaxis and the use of tenofovir disoproxil in pregnant women with high viral load in the third trimester. In addition, the incidence of mother -to- child transmission of HBV in the antiviral group was 0, while the incidence of HBV transmission in the placebo group was 2%. Therefore, it is not possible to deny the efficacy of adding antiviral drugs in treating pregnant women with high viral load in the third trimester with combined immunoprophylaxis. There is an urgent need for more real-world studies in clinical practice to further reveal the principles and existing problems of mother- to- child transmission of HBV.
为消除病毒性肝炎对公共卫生的威胁，世界卫生组织提出到2030年要实现儿童乙型肝炎表面抗原流行率降至0.1%的宏伟目标，而乙型肝炎病毒（HBV）母婴阻断是实现这一宏伟目标的关键。近年来，国内外主要慢性乙型肝炎管理指南推荐，在新生儿注射乙型肝炎疫苗和乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白（HBIG）联合免疫基础上，对妊娠晚期高病毒载量孕妇加用抗病毒药物，可以进一步减少甚至完全阻断HBV母婴传播。然而，近期在泰国的一项研究发现，对高病毒载量孕妇在妊娠晚期加用抗病毒药物并没有显著降低HBV母婴传播的发生率，但是该研究发现，通过严格标准的乙型肝炎疫苗和HBIG联合免疫，以及对妊娠晚期高病毒载量孕妇使用替诺福韦酯，无一例婴儿发生慢性HBV感染，即加用抗病毒药物组HBV母婴传播发生率为0，而安慰剂组HBV母婴传播发生率为2.0%。因此，尚不能否定在联合免疫的基础上，对高病毒载量孕妇在妊娠晚期加用抗病毒药物的有效性。临床实践中迫切需要更多真实世界研究，进一步揭示HBV母婴传播的规律及存在的问题。.

Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is a major global health problem affecting an estimated 350 million people with more than 786000 individuals dying annually due to complications, such as cirrhosis, liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Liver transplantation (LT) is considered gold standard for treatment of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related liver failure and HCC. However, post-transplant viral reactivation can be detrimental to allograft function, leading to poor survival. Prophylaxis with high-dose hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and anti-viral drugs have achieved remarkable progress in LT by suppressing viral replication and improving long-term survival. The combination of lamivudine (LAM) plus HBIG has been for many years the most widely used. However, life-long HBIG use is both cumbersome and costly, whereas long-term use of LAM results in resistant virus. Recently, in an effort to develop HBIG-free protocols, high potency nucleos(t)ide analogues, such as Entecavir or Tenofovir, have been tried either as monotherapy or in combination with low-dose HBIG with excellent results. Current focus is on novel antiviral targets, especially for covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA), in an effort to eradicate HBV infection instead of viral suppression. However, there are several other molecular mechanisms through which HBV may reactivate and need equal attention. The purpose of this review is to address post-LT HBV reactivation, its risk factors, underlying molecular mechanisms, and recent advancements and future of anti-viral therapy.

A birth dose of hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG), in combination with hepatitis B vaccine (HepB), is recommended for infants born to hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive mothers. However, the optimal dosage of HBIG remains to be resolved. This prospective cohort study aimed to compare the efficacy of two dosages of HBIG combined with HepB to prevent mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HBV.
From 2009 to 2011, we prospectively enrolled mother-infant pairs with positive maternal HBsAg in China. Infants were assigned to receive one dose of 100 IU or 200 IU HBIG within 12 h of birth according to maternal numbering, followed by completion of the 3-dose 10 μg HepB series. At 7 months, post-vaccination serologic testing (PVST) was performed in 545 and 632 infants in 100 IU and 200 IU HBIG groups, respectively, among whom, 451 and 529 were followed up to 12 months.
Maternal and birth characteristics were comparable between infants in 100 IU and 200 IU HBIG groups. At 7 months, the rates of perinatal infection were 1.5% (8/545) and 1.9% (12/632) in 100 IU and 200 IU HBIG groups, respectively (p = .568). One non-responder infant in 200 IU HBIG group became newly infected at 12 months. The antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs) positive rates were 98.5% (529/537) and 98.2% (609/620) in 100 IU and 200 IU HBIG groups at 7 months, respectively (p = .704), and the corresponding figures were 98.2% (431/439) and 97.1% (496/511) at 12 months (p = .266). The anti-HBs geometric mean concentrations were comparable between two groups at 7 months (707.95 mIU/mL vs. 602.56 mIU/mL, p = .062) and 12 months (245.47 mIU/mL vs. 229.09 mIU/mL, p = .407).
One birth dose of 100 IU HBIG, combined with the HepB series, might be enough for preventing MTCT of HBV in infants born to HBsAg-positive mothers.