BACKGROUND: That the peroneus tertius muscle (PT) is a separate entity has been debated. PT has been reported to be part of the extensor digitorum longus muscle, part of the extensor digitorum brevis, or a separate muscle. While pigs have a PT as well as primates, there are no reports of its association with the extensor digitorum longus muscle or extensor digitorum brevis.
METHODS: In this study, we used gross dissection and Sihler\'s staining to determine the origin, course, insertion, and innervation of the pig PT.
RESULTS: The PT and extensor digitorum longus muscles jointly originated from the femur and ran between the tibialis cranialis and peroneus longus muscles. The PT was inserted at the retinaculum of the metatarsal extensors, tarsal bone, and second metatarsal bone. The branches of the common fibular nerve to the extensor digitorum longus muscle were distributed to the PT.
CONCLUSIONS: The innervations suggest that the PT and extensor digitorum longus muscles of the pig were derived from the same muscle mass during development but were named separately due to differences in their morphology. Furthermore, morphological features suggest that pig PT and human PT are probably different muscles.

Here we provide complete 3D reconstructions of the petrosal bone and bony labyrinth of four kinds of small-sized deer (Elaphodus cephalophus, Muntiacus reevesi, Muntiacus muntjak, Hydropotes inermis) based on high-resolution CT scanning, and select one musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) as a comparative object. The petrosal bone and bony labyrinth of E. cephalophus are illustrated for the first time, as well as the petrosal bones of M. reevesi and H. inermis. Some morphological characters of petrosal bone and bony labyrinth can be used to distinguish the above-mentioned species. For example, M. moschiferus shows a prominent transpromontorial sulcus and a ventral basicapsular groove on the petrosal bone; there is a bifurcate cochlear aqueduct on the bony labyrinth of E. cephalophus; there is a distinct fusion between the lateral and posterior semicircular canals on the bony labyrinth of H. inermis. Meanwhile, there are some intraspecific variations on the subarcuate fossa, the tegmen tympani, the cochlear aqueduct, as well as the endolymphatic sac. Our results further confirm that the petrosal bone and bony labyrinth have enormous potential for taxonomy. This work will provide new anatomical data for the phylogenetic study of ruminants in the future, and it will be very practical to identify the isolated ruminants\' petrosal bones that are frequently unearthed from paleontological or archeological sites.

UNASSIGNED: With the introduction of the concept of mesopancreas defining the perineural structures that includes neurovascular bundle and lymph nodes extending from the posterior surface of the pancreatic head to behind the mesenteric vessels,Total Mesopancreas Excision (TMpE) based on this theory has facilitated the development of pancreatic cancer surgery in clinical practice in recent years. However, the existence of so called mesopancreas in the human body is still in debate and the comparative study of mesopancreas of rhesus monkey and human have not been well investigated.
UNASSIGNED: The aim of our study is to compare the pancreatic vessels and fascia of human and rhesus monkeys in anatomical and embryological perspectives and to support the utilization of rhesus monkey as animal model.
UNASSIGNED: In this study, 20 rhesus monkey cadavers were dissected and their mesopancreas location, relationships and arterial distribution were analyzed. We compared the location and developmental patterns of mesopancreas in macaques and humans.
UNASSIGNED: The results showed that the distribution of pancreatic arteries in rhesus monkeys was the same as that in humans, which is consistent with phylogenetic similarities. However, the morphological features of the mesopancreas and greater omentum is anatomically different from that of humans, including (1) the greater omentum is not connected to the transverse colon in monkeys. (2) The presence of the dorsal mesopancreas of the rhesus monkey suggests that it be an intraperitoneal organ. Comparative anatomical studies of mesopancreas and arteries in macaques and humans showed characteristic patterns of mesopancreas and similarities in pancreatic artery development in nonhuman primates, consistent with phylogenetic differentiation.

To reveal the connectional specialization of the Broca\'s area (or its homologue), voxel-wise inter-species and individual differences, and inter-hemispheric asymmetry were respectively inspected in humans and macaques at both whole-brain connectivity and single tract levels. It was discovered that the developed connectivity blueprint approach is able to localize connectionally comparable voxels between the two species in Broca\'s area, whereas the quantitative differences between blueprints of locationally or connectionally corresponding voxels enable us to generate inter-hemispheric, inter-subject, and inter-species connectional variabilities, respectively. More importantly, the inter-species and inter-subject variabilities exhibited positive correlation in both two primates, and relatively higher variabilities were detected in the anatomically defined pars triangularis. By contrast, negative relationship was identified between the inter-species variability and hemispheric asymmetry in human brain. In particular, relatively higher asymmetry was revealed in the anatomically defined pars opercularis. Therefore, our novel findings demonstrated that pars triangularis, as compared to pars opercularis, might be a more active area during primate evolution, in which the brain connectivity and possible functions of pars triangularis show relatively higher degree in species specialization, yet lower in hemispheric specialization. Meanwhile, brain connectivity and possible functions of pars opercularis manifested an opposite pattern. At the tract level, functional roles related to the ventral stream in speech comprehension were relatively conservative and bilaterally organized, while those related to the dorsal stream in speech production show relatively higher species and hemispheric specializations.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the.
METHODS: for locating and selecting the acupoints of \"Taixi\" (KI3), \"Shuiquan\" (KI5), \"Fuliu\" (KI7), \"Jiaoxin\" (KI8), \"Zhubin\" (KI9), and \"Yingu\" (KI10) and the morphological structure of these acupoints in rabbits. MethodsAccording to the WHO and national standards for human acupoints and rabbit X-ray images, acupoint locations were marked using the anatomical landmarks on body surface in 10 New Zealand rabbits. The acupoints were dissected to compare the homologous and analogous tissue between rabbits and human body and thus correct the locations of these acupoints. Potentials were measured for the 10 New Zealand rabbits at the corrected locations of the acupoints and around the acupoints, and the final locations of these acupoints were determined by comparing the anatomical results and the data of potentials. Anatomical observation was performed after marking, and the relationship between acupuncture needle and adjacent structure was observed.
RESULTS: \"Taixi\" was located in the ankle area, at the midpoint between the prominence of the medial malleolus and the calca-neal tendon; \"Shuiquan\" was located in the calcaneal area below \"Taixi\" in the depression anterior to the calcaneal tuberosity; \"Fuliu\" was located at the medial side of the calf, at 2 cun above the prominence of the medial malleolus anterior to the calcaneal tendon; \"Jiaoxin\" was located at the medial side of the calf, at 2 cun above the prominence of the medial malleolus and in the depression posterior to the medial border of the tibia; \"Zhubin\" was located at the medial side of the calf, at 5 cun above the medial malleolus on the line between \"Taixi\" and \"Yingu\"; \"Yingu\" was located at the medial side of the knee, at the posterior-inferior border of the semitendinosus tendon on the popliteal crease. The results of skin potentials at the acupoints suggested that \"Taixi\", \"Shuiquan\", \"Fuliu\", and \"Zhubin\" were high-reliability acupoints, \"Jiaoxin\" was a medium-reliability acupoint, and \"Yingu\" was a low-reliability acupoint.
CONCLUSIONS: Comparative anatomy combined with imaging, surface anatomy, and electrophysiological techniques of acupoints can help with the accurate localization and selection of acupoints in experimental animals, improve the reliability of acupoint location, and enrich the comparative anatomical data of acupoints.
目的：研究家兔“太溪”“水泉”“复溜”“交信”“筑宾”“阴谷”的定位法、取穴法及穴区形态结构。方法：以人体腧穴定位WHO标准及国家标准为参考，以家兔解剖结构为基础，结合X线成像对10只新西兰兔进行定位，解剖穴区后比较定位区域家兔与人体同源同功组织，校正穴位定位。再麻醉10只家兔标记穴位，处死后进行血管灌注，解剖观测针灸针与周围组织结构的毗邻关系。结果：“太溪”定位在踝区，内踝尖与跟腱连线的中点；针刺层次为皮肤、浅筋膜、深筋膜、趾长屈肌腱。“水泉”定位在跟区，“太溪”直下，跟骨结节上端内侧凹陷中；针刺层次为皮肤、浅筋膜、深筋膜、跟骨。“复溜”定位在小腿内侧，内踝尖上2寸，跟腱的前缘；针刺层次为皮肤、浅筋膜、深筋膜、趾长屈肌腱。“交信”定位在小腿内侧，内踝尖上2寸，胫骨内侧缘后际凹陷中；针刺层次为皮肤、浅筋膜、深筋膜、趾长屈肌腱。“筑宾”定位在小腿内侧，内踝尖上5寸，“太溪”与“阴谷”连线上；针刺层次为皮肤、浅筋膜、深筋膜、半膜肌腱膜、趾浅屈肌、趾长屈肌。“阴谷”定位在膝内侧区，膝环线上，半腱肌肌腱后下缘；针刺层次为皮肤、浅筋膜、深筋膜、股薄肌腱膜、内收大肌、腓肠肌内侧头。结论：家兔后肢足少阴肾经与隐动脉及分支、隐静脉及属支、隐神经、胫神经及分支有密切关系，此为上述6个穴位的形态学基础。.

This paper examines the points of disagreement between Petrus Camper and J. W. von Goethe regarding the existence of the inter-maxillary bone in humans as the link between man and the rest of nature. This historical case illustrates the fundamental role of aesthetic judgements in scientific discovery. Thus, I shall show how the eighteenth century discovery of the inter-maxillary bone in humans was largely determined by aesthetic factors-specifically, those sets of assumptions and criteria implied in the aesthetic schemata of Camper and Goethe. I argue that the relevance of scientifically ascertainable morphological properties that count as evidence for the existence of bona fide anatomical structures depend on the aesthetic schema adopted by the communities assessing the classification. At the same time, I propose and explain mechanisms by which aesthetic considerations might determine the acceptability of empirical claims about the world. Based on the reconstruction of the arguments of Camper and Goethe, I conclude that aesthetic considerations play a substantive role in both the generation and preliminary evaluation of scientific hypotheses. This paper suggests a complementary relation between the mediation of aesthetic criteria in theory choice and in scientific discovery in that while aesthetic considerations in theory choice lead to conservatism; in the context of discovery they often lead to innovation.

In this study, 94 fetal pigs were used to comprehensively investigate the origins, number, location, and distribution of the coronary arteries to enrich knowledge on the coronary circulation in fetal pigs, and allow comparison with adult pigs and humans. In fetal pigs, the posterior interventricular sulcus branch always arose from the right coronary artery and the circumflex artery was rarely extended to the posterior interventricular sulcus, while it is variable in humans. In fetal pigs, there was sometimes anastomosis (8.5%) between the left and right conus branches as nutrient arteries of the pulmonary cone. Other branches were not significantly different between fetal pigs and humans, including the acute marginal branch, obtuse marginal branch, and sinoatrial nodal artery. Coronary dominance was also similar. In conclusion, compared with adult pigs, dissection of the coronary arteries in fetal pigs provided a more faithful overview of the porcine coronary circulation. The coronary arteries in fetal pigs were also more suitable for comparison with humans when pigs are used as experimental animals for studying the coronary vessels, which could be an important reference for investigation of clinical treatment of the coronary arteries. In summary, our data provide reliable information about the distribution and ramifications of the coronary arteries, and could be useful for clinicians and surgeons who wish to comprehensively understand coronary anatomy.

BACKGROUND: The levator veli palatini (LVP) muscle drives the elevation and retraction of the soft palate to facilitate speech and feeding, but undergoes atrophic changes in patients with cleft palate deformity. This study aimed to establish an effective drug delivery technique for LVP muscle regeneration.
METHODS: An intraoral injection technique for rat LVP muscle regeneration was developed based on careful examination of the rat craniofacial anatomy. The accuracy and reliability of this technique were tested by cone-beam computed tomography and nitrocellulose dye labeling. Recombinant human Wnt7a was delivered via this injection technique, and the subsequent responses of the levator veli palatini muscle were analyzed.
RESULTS: Both the cone-beam computed tomography orientation of the needle tip and dye labeling suggested repeatable accuracy of the injection technique. Recombinant human Wnt7a delivery via this technique induced regeneration-related changes, including increased expression of centrally nucleated myofibers and Ki67+ve nuclei.
CONCLUSIONS: The intraoral injection technique is safe and efficient. It can be used for accurate drug delivery and to screen regenerative therapeutics for the LVP muscle.

Dianthus chinensis is a perennial herbaceous plant with great ornamental, botanical, ecological, and medicinal value. The pistil of D. chinensis is composed of two fused carpels with free central placenta and two separate styles. The placenta is a columnar structure extending about two-thirds the length of the maturing fruit, which is typical of the Caryophyllaceous. Traditionally, free central placenta is thought to have evolved from axial placenta by septal disappearance, and axial placenta to have occurred through fusion of conduplicate carpels with marginal placenta. However, the traditional opinion is becoming more and more inconsistent with the new data gained in recent research of angiosperm systematics. To clarify the origin of D. chinensis pistil, the present anatomical study was carried out. The results show that the vascular system of placenta is independent to that of the ovary wall in D. chinensis. Moreover, in the central part of placenta there are one or two amphicribral bundles, and correspondingly numerous ones in the pistil which supply the ovules/seeds. It is obvious that the central amphicribral bundles in placenta are comparable to the counterparts in branches but not to those in leaves or their derivatives. Therefore, it is reasonable to deduce that the placenta of D. chinensis was not derived from conduplicate carpels through fusion of collateral vascular bundles, and actually a floral axis with ovules/seeds laterally adhering. On the contrary, the ovary wall was the lateral appendages of the floral axis. The result of the present study is completely in agreement with Unifying Theory, in which the placenta is taken as an ovule-bearing branch. Except for D. chinensis, the similar vascular organization has been observed in placenta of numerous isolated taxa. But till now, it is uncertain that whether this vascular organization pattern is popular in the whole angiosperms or not. More intensive and extensive investigations are needed.

BACKGROUND: In the classical doctrines, Magnolia was frequently considered the archetype among flowering plants, and its conduplicate carpel with marginal placentation was assumed to be derived from a leaf-like organ bearing ovules along its margins. Although the robustness of this concept has been seriously questioned by advances in botanical research, especially the emergence of Magnolia deeper in the angiosperm tree of life in molecular systematics, it remains the most-taught interpretation for the origin of carpels.
RESULTS: To test the validity of this classical doctrine, we performed comparative anatomical analyses of the vascular bundles in the flowers of Magnolia using fine (8-μm) paraffin -sections. We document the presence of two independent vascular systems in the carpels: the collateral bundles of the dorsal and ventral veins arising from the stelar bundle, and the amphicribral ovular bundles arising from the cortical bundles. This observation in conjunction with data from other fields concurrently suggests that the ovary wall is equivalent to a foliar organ whereas the placenta represents an ovule-bearing shoot.
CONCLUSIONS: Our observation on the former model plant, Magnolia, nullifies the classical doctrine of carpel evolution and supports the Unifying Theory. This conclusion prompts a reconsideration of the concept of angiosperm flower evolution.