BACKGROUND: The number of older people living alone is constantly increasing. This group faces special challenges regarding remaining at home when their care needs increase, especially in later life. When no family is available, friends and neighbors, so called non-kin carers, are important sources of support.
OBJECTIVE: A literature review was conducted to evaluate existing research on the relevance of non-kin support for older people living alone, from initial limitations to the end of their lives, particularly when they wished to remain at home.
METHODS: The literature search followed the criteria of a scoping review and was conducted in relevant databases and manually. A total of 22 studies were included in the analysis.
RESULTS: Older people living alone are often embedded in complex support networks. Living alone at an advanced age creates tensions between the desire for independence and the need for help. Non-kin carers primarily provide instrumental, emotional, and informational support. Challenges arise due to difficult interpersonal dynamics and the overburdening of non-kin carers, especially when those they support are at the end of their lives.
CONCLUSIONS: It is important to understand care networks as a complex interplay of different actors. Future research should focus on the specific burdens on non-kin carers as well as on the dynamics of relationships in these care networks.
UNASSIGNED: HINTERGRUND: Immer mehr ältere Menschen leben allein. Wenn keine Familie vorhanden ist und der Unterstützungsbedarf zunimmt, sind informelle außerfamiliäre Helfende für sie eine wichtige Ressource. Um die Chancen eines Verbleibs zu Hause bis in die letzte Lebensphase für alleinlebende ältere Menschen zu verbessern, sind Erkenntnisse zu außerfamiliären informellen Hilfsarrangements von Bedeutung.
UNASSIGNED: Anhand einer Literaturübersicht sollte der Forschungsstand hinsichtlich des Stellenwerts informeller außerfamiliärer Hilfe in der Versorgung älterer alleinlebender Menschen erfasst und skizziert werden, wobei der Unterstützungsbedarf vom Zeitpunkt anfänglicher Einschränkungen bis zum Lebensende einbezogen wurde.
METHODS: Die Vorgangsweise folgte den Kriterien eines Scoping-Reviews für die Literaturrecherche, die in facheinschlägigen Datenbanken sowie mithilfe von Handrecherche durchgeführt wurde. Es wurden insgesamt 22 Studien in die Analyse eingeschlossen.
UNASSIGNED: Alleinlebende ältere Menschen sind in komplexe Unterstützungsnetzwerke eingebettet. Diese stehen im Spannungsfeld zwischen dem subjektiven Wunsch nach Unabhängigkeit und dem meist wachsenden Hilfebedarf, der nur „von außen“ gedeckt werden kann. Informelle außerfamiliäre Helfende leisten v. a. instrumentelle, emotionale und informationelle Unterstützung. Herausforderungen ergeben sich durch interpersonelle Dynamiken und Überlastungen der Helfenden insbesondere am Lebensende der Alleinlebenden.
CONCLUSIONS: Es ist wichtig, Unterstützungsnetzwerke als komplexes Zusammenspiel unterschiedlicher Akteur*innen zu verstehen. Zukünftige Forschung sollte v. a. auf die spezifischen Belastungen für außerfamiliäre Helfende fokussieren.

Background: Informal support of a bereaved parent is common after the loss of a child (stillborn, young or adult child); however, it is not clear which aspects of informal support were perceived to be helpful by the bereaved parent. The aim of this scoping review is to clarify from the standpoint of bereaved parents what are considered helpful and unhelpful characteristics of informal support given by the support network of bereaved parents. Methods: A comprehensive search of databases from 2000 to April 20, 2020 was conducted for clinical studies published in English on informal bereavement support of adult bereaved parents of stillborn to adult children; 52 articles met criteria for the scoping review. The databases included Ovid MEDLINE(R) and Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, and Daily, Ovid EMBASE, Ovid Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Ovid Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Ovid PsycINFO, and Scopus. Results: Specific supportive strategies reported by parents as helpful more frequently included talking with other supportive persons felt to be supportive, meeting another person with a similar type of loss, and a loss-specific peer support group. Other support included peer support groups in general, tangible aid, talking with the spouse about the child who died and/or accepting each other\'s different grieving styles, and remembrance gestures. Specific supportive strategies reported by parents as unhelpful more frequently included feeling of stigma or blame due to type of death or feeling that the type of death was not considered equal to other deaths and platitudes & insensitive comments. Other unhelpful support included talking with others felt to be unsupportive about discussing the loss, others stating a time limit to grief, others actively avoiding or stopping all communication with the bereaved parent, and one spouse not accepting the grieving style of the other or the spouse not willing to discuss the loss. Conclusion: Support focused on supportive verbal and nonverbal communication towards the bereaved parent and tangible aid were noted to be helpful informal support. Feeling stigma for or judged by others due to the type of death or the death not being considered equal (such as in deaths due to suicide and stillborn deaths) to other types of deaths as well as informational support (utilization of clichés/platitudes, advice giving, statements about the process and end point of grieving) were noted to be unhelpful informal support.

The vulnerability and instability of low-income mothers situated in a context with a weak public safety net make informal social support one of few options many low-income mothers have to meet basic needs. This systematic review examines (a) social support as an empirical construct, (b) the restricted availability of one important aspect of social support-informal perceived support, hereafter informal support-among low-income mothers, (c) the role of informal support in maternal, economic, parenting, and child outcomes, (d) the aspects of informal support that influence its effects, and (e) directions for future research. Traditional systematic review methods resulted in an appraisal of 65 articles published between January 1996 and May 2017. Findings indicated that informal support is least available among mothers most in need. Informal support provides some protection from psychological distress, economic hardship, poor parenting practices, and poor child outcomes. To promote informal support and its benefits among low-income families, future research can advance knowledge by defining the quintessential characteristics of informal support, identifying instruments to capture these characteristics, and providing the circumstances in which support can be most beneficial to maternal and child well-being. Consistent measurement and increased understanding of informal support and its nuances can inform intervention design and delivery to strengthen vulnerable mothers\' informal support perceptions thereby improving individual and family outcomes.

Unpaid, informal carers play a vital role in supporting people with long-term conditions. Being a carer can be challenging and carers may need support but they frequently fail to access it. Compared to research investigating the experiences of female carers, research with male carers is underdeveloped. The available evidence suggests male and female carers have many experiences in common but some research suggests that compared to females, male carers are even less likely to access services. The aim of this systematic review was therefore to synthesise research investigating adult male carers\' experiences of accessing formal and informal support focussing on the barriers and facilitators. Nine health and social care electronic databases were searched (e.g. PubMed, PsychINFO, CINAHL Plus, Social Policy and Practice, Scopus). Seven studies (five qualitative and two quantitative) fitting the inclusion criteria were identified. All came from North America and most focussed on older carers caring for people with dementia. All seven studies described barriers to accessing support and three highlighted facilitators. Male carers felt committed to their role, seeing it as their responsibility but were often ambivalent about seeking help. Insufficient service information was frequently emphasised. Participants highlighted positive past experiences and professional or voluntary sector support in providing information and helping access services. Research into male carers\' experiences in accessing support remains underdeveloped. Research that distinguishes between, for example, the experiences of spouses and sons and with direct comparisons between male and female carers is needed. Whether gender specific services would benefit male carers remains undetermined.

This article presents a review of the published literature to date on rates, experiences, and correlates of victims\' disclosure of or help seeking for intimate partner violence to informal social support network members (e.g., friends, family, classmates, and coworkers). Research indicates that the majority of individuals disclose to at least one informal support and that victims\' disclosure is associated with a number of demographic (e.g., victims\' sex, age, race), intrapersonal (e.g., victims\' feelings of shame/embarrassment, perception of control over abuse), and situational (e.g., violence frequency and severity, if abuse is witnessed) factors. Following disclosure, victims experience a wide range of positive (e.g., believing the victim\'s reports, validating the victim\'s experiences) and negative (e.g. disbelieving, blaming the victim) social reactions, with positive reactions rated as the most common and most helpful forms of support by victims. Finally, a review of psychological correlates associated with reactions to disclosure indicates that positive social reactions are associated with more psychological health benefits and fewer negative health symptoms, whereas negative social reactions were associated with increased negative psychological health symptoms. Future research methodologies and implications for violence prevention, intervention, and policy are discussed.