Tributyltin (TBT) was widely used as a highly efficient biocide in antifouling paints for ship and boat hulls. Eventually, TBT containing paints became globally banned when TBT was found to cause widespread contamination and non-target adverse effects in sensitive species, with induced pseudohermaphroditism in female neogastropods (imposex) being the best-known example. In this review, we address the history and the status of knowledge regarding TBT pollution and marine TBT hotspots, with a special emphasis on the Norwegian coastline. The review also presents a brief update on knowledge of TBT toxicity in various marine species and humans, highlighting the current understanding of toxicity mechanisms relevant for causing endocrine disruption in marine species. Despite observations of reduced TBT sediment concentrations in many marine sediments over the recent decades, contaminant hotspots are still prevalent worldwide. Consequently, efforts to monitor TBT levels and assessment of potential effects in sentinel species being potentially susceptible to TBT in these locations are still highly warranted.

Triphenyltin (TPT) is widely used as a plastic stabilizer, insecticide and the most common fungicide in antifouling coatings. This paper reviewed the main literature evidences on the morphological and physiological changes of animal endocrine system induced by TPT, with emphasis on the research progress of TPT metabolism, neurological and reproductive regulation in animal endocrine system. Similar to tributyltin (TBT), the main effects of TPT on the potential health risks of 25 species of animals, from aquatic animals to mammals, are not only related to exposure dose and time, but also to age, sex and exposed tissue/cells. Moreover, current studies have shown that TPT can directly damage the endocrine glands, interfere with the regulation of neurohormones on endocrine function, and change hormone synthesis and/or the bioavailability (i.e., in the retinoid X receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma RXR-PPARγ) in target cells. Importantly, TPT can cause biochemical and morphological changes of gonads and abnormal production of steroids, both of which are related to reproductive dysfunction, for example, the imposex of aquatic animals and the irregular estrous cycle of female mammals or spermatogenic disorders of male animals. Therefore, TPT should indeed be regarded as a major endocrine disruptor, which is essential for understanding the main toxic effects on different tissues and their pathogenic effects on endocrine, metabolism, neurological and reproductive dysfunction.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a heterogeneous syndrome characterized by abnormal reproductive cycles, irregular ovulation, and hyperandrogenism. This complex disorder has its origins both within and outside the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. Cardio-metabolic factors, such as obesity and insulin resistance, contribute to the manifestation of the PCOS phenotype. Polycystic ovary syndrome is one of the most common endocrine disorders among women of reproductive age. Growing evidence suggested an association between reproductive and metabolic features of PCOS and exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC), such as bisphenol A. Further, the environmental obesogen tributyltin (TBT) was shown to induce reproductive, metabolic and cardiovascular abnormalities resembling those found in women and animal models of PCOS. However, the causal link between TBT exposure and PCOS development remains unclear. The objective of this review was to summarize the most recent research findings on the potential association between TBT exposure and development of PCOS-like features in animal models and humans.

Butyltins (BTs) are considered as a group of the most important organometallic compounds in industry and agriculture. Due to their widespread use, large amounts of BTs including tributyltin (TBT), dibutyltin (DBT), and monobutyltin (MBT) have entered into the environment, and subsequently causing detrimental effects on humans and aquatic organisms. This work provides a critical review of recent studies on the adsorption, desorption, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of BTs that can notably influence the distribution of BTs in the environment. Influence of environmental factors (e.g., pH and salinity) and adsorbents in the matrices (e.g., minerals, organic carbons, and quartz) on the adsorption, desorption, and toxicity of BTs is particularly addressed.

The review purposes are to (1) evaluate the experimental evidence for adverse effects on reproduction and metabolism and (2) identify the current knowledge of analytical procedures, biochemistry and environmental aspects relating to organotins. Organotins are pollutants that are used as biocides in antifouling paints. They produce endocrine-disrupting effects in mollusks, such as imposex. In rodents, organotin exposure induces developmental and reproductive toxicity as well as alteration of metabolic homeostasis through its action as an obesogen. The adverse effects that appear in rodents have raised concerns about organotins\' potential health risk to humans in relation to organotin exposure. At present, triorganotin, such as tributyltin, have been demonstrated to produce imposex, and mammalian reproductive and metabolic toxicity. For most mammals, triorganotin exposure predominantly occurs through the ingestion, and this compound can cross the placenta. With these risks in mind, it is important to improve our knowledge of organotins\' effects on environmental health.

Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chemical used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compounds in its list of priority compounds in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Additionally, the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of January 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of January 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compounds have been detected in a number of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compounds have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent organic pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compounds for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on experimental toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compounds are clearly necessary.

A review of the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and tributyltin (TBT) in sediments from Mobile Bay, Alabama, shows that overall levels of PAH decrease from the upper bay (RI) to the lower bay (RIV). Analysis of PAH ratios indicate that pyrogenic sources such as fossil fuel combustion are dominant. There are so few data on TBT in sediments that spatial trends cannot be identified. Levels of PAHs in oyster tissues decrease from the upper bay (RI) to the lower bay (RIII). Although there is no significant temporal trend for PAH levels in bivalves for the US; in the bay, levels in Region II (RII) have decreased significantly and are currently below the national median. There is no trend in Region III (RIII), where levels remain below RII and the national median. RI and RIV had too few data for trend analysis. Mean levels of TBT in oyster tissues decrease from the upper bay (RI) to the lower bay (RIII). Temporal trend analysis indicates a significant decreasing trend for TBT in the US but no significant trend was detected for RII and RIII in Mobile Bay. TBT levels in RII are consistently higher than levels in the US and RIII, which are similar. Data from RI are too limited for analysis and there are no data for RIV.

It is evident from measures of butyltin tissue burdens and imposex or intersex in neogastropods that tributyltin (TBT) contamination of coastal waters and open parts of the North Sea is now low. It has been declining for at least the past decade. This is probably due to two measures. First, regulations prohibiting the use of TBT-based paints on small boats and fish farms have reduced inputs of TBT from these sources so that they are now negligible (except possibly where the regulations are flaunted). Second, there is evidence from sites, where commercial vessels are the sole source of TBT, that the adoption of TBT SPC paints has been effective in reducing environmental levels of these contaminants. However, poor dockyard practices, allowing TBT-contaminated wastes, including paint flakes, to accumulate in sediments have left a legacy of hot-spots of contamination in some ports. The impact is localised so that TBT contamination is low in coastal areas immediately adjacent to ports.

Achieving consensus on equitable and effective national and global regulation(s) for the use of organotins as biocides in antifouling boat bottom paints has proven to be very complex and difficult for a variety of reasons as discussed in this paper. There appears to be broad agreement among stakeholders about the effectiveness of tributyltin (TBT) in antifouling paints. A draft Assembly Resolution prepared by the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to propose a global ban on the use of organotins in antifouling paints was approved by the IMO at its 21st regular session (November 1999). In approving the Resolution, the Assembly agreed that a legally binding instrument (global convention--an international treaty) be developed by the Marine Environmental Protection Committee that should ensure by 1 January 2003, a ban on the application of tributyltin (TBT)-based antifouling paints; and 1 January 2008 as the last date for having TBT-based antifouling paint on a vessel. The Assembly also agreed that a diplomatic conference be held in 2001 to consider adoption of the international legal instrument. Monitoring, policing, enforcement, fines and record-keeping are yet to be defined. In addition, the MEPC has also proposed that IMO promotes the use of environmentally-safe anti-fouling technologies to replace TBT. Existing national regulations in the US and Europe have: (1) restricted the use of TBT in antifouling boat bottom paints by vessel size (less than 25 m in length), thus eliminating TBT from the smaller and recreational vessels that exist in shallow coastal waters where the impacted oysters species grow; (2) restricted the release rates of TBT from co-polymer paints; and (3) eliminated the use of free TBT in paints. The present movement toward a global ban suggests that the above regulatory approach has not been sufficient in some countries. Advocates of the ban cite international findings of: (1) higher levels of TBT in surface waters of ports and open waters; (2) imposex still occurring and affecting a larger number of snail species; (3) TBT bioaccumulation in selected fisheries; and (4) the availability of \'comparable\' alternatives (to TBT) with less environmental impact. The global ban has been absent of a policy debate on the: (1) lack of \'acceptable and approved\' alternatives in many nations; (2) appreciation of market forces in nations without TBT regulations; (3) full consideration of the economic benefits from the use of TBT; (4) \'acceptance\' of environmental impacts in marinas, ports and harbors; and (5) realization of the \'real\' time period required by ships for antifoulant protection (is 5-7 years necessary or desirable?). Estimates of fuel savings range from $500 million to one billion. In assessing the environmental impact from TBT, there are two sources: the shipyard painting vessels and the painted vessel itself. Today vessels can be painted with regulated or banned antifouling materials by boatyards in a country that does not have TBT regulations and subsequently travel in international and regulated national waters and thus bringing the impact back to the country which was trying to prevent it. Worse, local and national regulations for TBT have proven to be the antithesis of the popular environmental cliché--\'Think Globally and Act Locally.\' Legislative policies enacted by \'regulated\' countries to regulate the use of TBT to protect (their) local marine resources have subsequently had far reaching environmental and economic impacts which have in essence transferred TBT contamination to those countries least able to deal with it. Market forces are selective for cheap labor and cheap environments. \'Unregulated\' countries have unknowingly accepted the environmental and human health risks to gain the economic benefits from painting TBT on ships. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Triethyltin (TET) and trimethyltin (TMT) are neurotoxic organotin compounds which produce different patterns of toxicity in adult animals. Exposure to TET produces behavioral toxicity (decreased motor activity, grip strength, operant response rate and startle response amplitude) which reflects impaired neuromotor function. These deficits are consistent with the reported myelin vacuolation and cerebral edema produced by TET, and with its direct effects on muscle. Exposure to TMT produces both hyperactivity and impaired learning and performance. These impairments are consistent with reported neuronal cell death produced by TMT, particularly in limbic system structures. While the behavioral deficits produced by repeated exposure to TET are reversible when dosing is terminated, the behavioral impairments produced by a single exposure to TMT appears to be irreversible.