Leukemia is a group of malignant diseases of clonal hematopoietic stem‑progenitor cells and its pathological mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Genetic and epigenetic abnormalities, as well as microenvironmental factors, including cytokines, serve critical roles in leukaemogenesis. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) has been presented as one of the key regulators in tumorigenesis, angiogenesis and tumor metastasis. This article focuses on the functional role of MIF and its pathway in cancer, particularly in leukemia. MIF/CD74 interaction serves prominent roles in tumor cell survival, such as upregulating BCL‑2 and CD84 expression, and activating receptor‑type tyrosine phosphatase ζ. Furthermore, MIF upregulation forms a pro‑tumor microenvironment in response to hypoxia‑induced factors and promotes pro‑inflammatory cytokine production. Additionally, polymorphisms of the MIF promoter sequence are associated with leukemia development. MIF signal‑targeted early clinical trials show positive results. Overall, these efforts provide a promising means for intervention in leukemia.

BACKGROUND: Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is a rare form of internal male pseudohermaphroditism characterized by the presence of rudimentary Müllerian structures in a virilized male often presenting as undescended testes. Thus, each patient diagnosed with undescended testes should promptly be investigated for PMDS because the early diagnosis has direct effects on outcome and prognosis.
METHODS: A 26-year-old-male complained of long-standing abdominal pain two years ago and was diagnosed having bilateral undescended testes in the pelvic region. He underwent the orchidopexy about one year ago but, after 5 months of orchidopexy, he first complained of discomfort in the left and then right inguinal region due to an incisional hernia that presumed to have the ovotesticular disorder of sexual development. On the pelvic MRI exam, the Müllerian duct structures were observed and he was diagnosed as having PMDS.
CONCLUSIONS: In this case the patient had bilateral cryptorchidism with testes fixed in the para iliac region with respect to the uterus, indicating the female type of PMDS which is a rare type of PMDS. The case is proven genetically and Müllerian duct remnants have been resected to avoid malignant transformation.
CONCLUSIONS: Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is a rare finding and may present as long-standing abdominal pain. Each patient diagnosed with undescended testes should promptly be investigated for PMDS. Diagnosis and management aim to preserve fertility and prevent malignant changes. Therefore, familiarity with this rare condition will lead to adequate management and prevention of complications.

BACKGROUND: Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) has emerged as a promising drug target in diseases including sepsis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer. MIF has multiple properties that favor development of specific, targeted therapies: it is expressed broadly among human cells, has noted roles in diverse inflammatory and oncological processes, and has intrinsic enzymatic activity amenable to high-throughput screening. Despite these advantages, anti-MIF therapy remains well behind other cytokine-targeted therapeutics, with no small molecules in the pipeline for clinical development and anti-MIF antibodies only recently beginning clinical trials. Areas covered: In this review we summarize current literature regarding MIF structure and function-including challenges and controversies that have arisen in studies of anti-MIF therapeutics-and propose a strategy for development of clinically relevant anti-MIF drugs. Expert opinion: We believe that the field of anti-MIF therapeutics would benefit from capitalizing on the protein\'s multiple assets while acknowledging their flaws. The tautomerase enzymatic site of MIF may not be active biologically, but can nonetheless offer a high-throughput method to highlight molecules of interest that can affect its other, frequently intertwined bioactivities. Future work should also focus on developing more robust assays for MIF bioactivity that can be used for second-pass screening and specificity studies.

Obesity is associated with a chronic low-grade inflammatory state that drives the -development of obesity-related co-morbidities such as insulin resistance/type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and cardiovascular disease. This metabolic inflammation is thought to originate in the adipose tissue, which becomes inflamed and insulin resistant when it is no longer able to expand in response to excess caloric and nutrient intake. The production of inflammatory mediators by dysfunctional adipose tissue is thought to drive the development of more complex forms of disease such as type 2 diabetes and NAFLD. An important factor that may contribute to metabolic inflammation is the cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF). Increasing evidence suggests that MIF is released by adipose tissue in obesity and that it is also involved in metabolic and inflammatory processes that underlie the development of obesity-related pathologies. This review provides a comprehensive summary of our current knowledge on the role of MIF in obesity, its production by adipose tissue, and its involvement in the development of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and NAFLD. We discuss the main findings from recent clinical studies in obese subjects and weight-loss intervention studies as well as results from clinical studies in patients with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, we summarize findings from experimental disease models studying the contribution of MIF in obesity and insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and hepatic lipid accumulation and fibrosis. Although many of the findings support a pro-inflammatory role of MIF in disease development, recent reports also provide indications that MIF may exert protective effects under certain conditions.

Complex and dynamic networks of molecules participate in the essential interactions between maternal organism, placenta and fetus in a healthy and successful pregnancy. Macrophage migratory inhibitory factor (MIF) is one of several molecules produced at implantation sites; MIF is mostly expressed by trophoblast cells. This has led to expectations of MIF\'s relevance as a partner in the maternal/fetal dialog. MIF is known by its biological interactions and functional roles as an activator of innate immunity, regulating subsequent adaptive responses, which include inhibition of migration of mononuclear cells in vitro, antagonism of glucocorticoids, and regulation of expression of Toll-like receptor 4. Beyond roles in the inflammatory response, MIF can interfere with proliferative activities in different cell types, as well as with cell death pathways. This intriguing factor found at the human, porcine, ovine, bovine and rodent maternal-fetal interfaces is present in a time- and spatially-dependent manner, indicating regulatory roles in the process of embryo implantation, placental development, maintenance of pregnancy and birth. Here, we will review MIF participation in placental physiology, including new evidence for a dialog with uterine cells, and a potential role in protection of uterine decidual cells.