Throughout recorded history, the canine-human connection has varied by custom, purpose, and intensity. In many cultures worldwide, dogs have long been considered essential workers, protectors and guardians, and, often, an integral part of the family unit. Ensuring the health and quality of life of those companion animals is essential to preserving the bond between dogs and their owners. Fortunately, advances in veterinary science continue to improve treatments and cures for and prophylaxis against a variety of deadly canine diseases, several of which can be sourced to ectoparasites or endoparasites. For many veterinary patients, a customized preparation often proves to be the best therapeutic option, but many compounding-pharmacy stores also include a retail component that offers ready access to manufactured prescription medications, including those prophylactic against canine flea, tick, or heartworm infestation. Because dog owners often need guidance in selecting such products and assistance with obtaining them, this article will be of special interest to ompounders in those pharmacies. To that end, the following content addresses common canine parasites and classes of drugs that prevent the illnesses they cause, with emphasis on heartworm disease.

BACKGROUND: Feline-associated hemotropic Mycoplasma (hemoplasmas) are believed to be transmitted by two primary mechanisms: (1) direct transmission via fighting and (2) vector-borne transmission by the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis). While the efficiency of transmission by C. felis appears low, most manuscripts focus on the prevalence of hemoplasmas in wild-caught fleas and report either a very low (< 3%) or a high (> 26%) prevalence. Therefore, we aimed to assess the influence of sample processing and PCR methods on C. felis hemoplasma infection prevalence.
METHODS: A systemic review of PubMed articles identified 13 manuscripts (1,531 fleas/flea pools) that met the inclusion criteria (performed PCR for >1 hemoplasma on C. felis collected from cats). Risk of bias was assessed utilizing the ROBINS-E tool. Meta-analysis performed in R of these manuscripts found that not washing samples and a common set of 16S rRNA primers first published in Jensen et al. 2001 were associated with increased hemoplasma prevalence. To evaluate the influence of washing on newly collected fleas, we assessed the hemoplasma status of 20 pools of 5 C. felis each, half of which were washed and half not washed.
RESULTS: Flea washing did not influence the detection of hemoplasma but instead amplified Spiroplasma. To assess non-specific amplification with the Jensen et al. 2001 primers, 67 C. felis samples (34% previously reported hemoplasma infected) were subject to PCR and sequencing. By this method, hemoplasma was detected in only 3% of samples. In the remaining \"hemoplasma infected\" fleas, PCR amplified Spiroplasma or other bacteria.
CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, we concluded that hemoplasma infection in C. felis is rare, and future flea prevalence studies should sequence all positive amplicons to validate PCR specificity. Further investigation of alternative methods of feline-associated hemoplasma transmission and the ability of C. felis to maintain hemoplasma infection is necessary.

Fleas have rarely been reported from the puma, Puma concolor (Linnaeus, 1771), despite its vast geographic range, its breadth of habitat use, and its diverse diet, all of which bring it into contact with many other species of mammals and potentially their fleas. We review the reported occurrence of 8 species of fleas from pumas, 7 of these species being from wild hosts and 1 species from a host in captivity, and we correct the mistaken report of 1 other flea species from the puma. We present 10 new records of 4 species of fleas from the puma in Utah and Texas. 2 of these flea species, Cediopsylla inaequalis inaequalis (Baker, 1895) and Odontopsyllus dentatus (Baker, 1904), represent new host records, and 1 species, Chaetopsylla setosa Rothschild, 1906, is a new state record for Utah as well as being 1 of the 2 southernmost known localities for this species. At least 7 of the 9 flea species now known from free-ranging pumas are species that are acquired by pumas from their prey. Pumas may be primary hosts of 2 flea species, but even these fleas may be from prey. Some of the flea species that parasitize pumas transmit sylvatic plague, and, since pumas are highly vagile and are known to become infected with plague, they may spread the disease through their dispersal of infected fleas. Pumas and their fleas also may be involved in the ecology of several other bacterial zoonoses, which are discussed.

Fleas (Insecta, Siphonaptera) are important vectors of plague and murine typhus in many parts of the world. Currently, about 2700 flea species were described in the world. The most common vector flea Xenopsylla cheopis is found throughout India, but X. astia, and X. brasiliensis are found less and limited in distribution associated with the domestic rats such as Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus, Mus musculus, and Bandicota bengalensis. Bubonic plague is a major flea-borne disease caused by the bacterial pathogen Yersinia pestis, transmitted from rats to humans via the rodent flea, X. cheopis. A major outbreak of plague and high mortality occurred in India. After 1966 with the 3 decadal intervals, plague cases occurred only during the year 1994 reported in 5 different states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and New Delhi and subsequently plague cases occurred during 2002 and 2004 after the one-decade interval in Himachal Pradesh (2002). Another outbreak of bubonic plague was reported in Dangud village, Barkhot tehsil, Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand during October 2004. Ctenocephalides fleas are common in cats and dogs, which are the main vectors of bacteria rickettsiae, such as Rickettsia typhi, R. felis, R. conorii, and Bartonella henselae. Molecular and serological evidence also confirms the presence of R. typhi, R. conorii R. felis and B. henselae pathogens in cats and other fleas in India. Flea bites and flea-borne dermatitis are common in men and pet animals. Because of the re-emergence of the plague, updated information on fleas and flea-borne diseases are essential to control the flea vectors and flea-borne diseases in India. Hence, this comprehensive review updates the available information on fleas and fleas transmitted diseases in India.

Fleas are ectoparasites of various animals, including Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 (Primates: Hominidae). Among the species relevant to the human health field, either due to their dermatopathological potential or because of their role as vectors of microorganisms responsible for infectious diseases, such as plague or murine typhus, are the human flea, oriental rat flea, closely related cat and dog fleas, and chigoe flea. However, other species can accidentally infest humans. We have herein reported two unusual cases of humans infested and bitten by Archaeopsylla erinacei, the hedgehog flea. This species has been identified using stereomicroscopy, on the base of key characteristics. Furthermore, a brief literature review has revealed that hedgehog fleas could carry human-infectious agents, such as Rickettsia felis Bouyer et al. 2001 (Rickettsiales: Rickettsiaceae) or Bartonella henselae Regnery et al.1992 (Rhizobiales: Bartonellaceae). Using molecular biology, we thus tested nine A. erinacei specimens taken from these patients, for several bacteria species commonly associated with hematophagous arthropods, implicated in human pathology. However, all our samples were proven negative. The role of A. erinacei in human epidemiology has never been evaluated to date. This report sought to remind us that these fleas can be accidental parasites in humans. In addition, recent findings pertaining to bacteria of medical interest that are present in these insects should be brought to the fore, given that the question of their role as vectors in human infections remains unanswered and deserves further investigation.

Acaricidal (tick) and insecticidal (flea) efficacy of systemically and cutaneously distributed ectoparasiticide products for dogs are compared based on permethrin and fluralaner as representative molecules. Results of efficacy studies against fleas and ticks are reviewed that show generally good to excellent results. Both externally and systemically distributed treatments have benefits and weaknesses in potentially preventing pathogen transmission by these arthropod vectors.Four general properties are considered related to the goal of providing optimal reduction in the risk of vector-borne pathogen transmission. These are: 1. Owner adherence to the recommended treatment protocol; 2. Rapid onset of activity following administration; 3. Uniform efficacy over all areas of the treated dog at risk for parasite attachment; 4. Maintenance of high efficacy throughout the retreatment interval. In considering these four factors, a systemically distributed acaricide can offer an option that is at least as effective as a cutaneously administered acaricide with regard to the overall goal of reducing the risk of vector-borne pathogen transmission.

The Order Siphonaptera comprises cosmopolitan haematophagous ectoparasites of birds and mammals. More than ten years have past since the last list of species known for Argentina. Herein we provide a review of the fleas from the country, which includes an updated list, host species and geographical distribution for each taxa, as well as some comments. We report 127 species and subspecies belonging to eleven different families; 42 of these species are endemic. Four genera (Adoratopsylla, Cleopsylla, Ctenidiosomus, and Nonnapsylla) and six species and subspecies (Adoratopsylla (Adoratopsylla) antiquorum antiquorum, Agastopsylla pearsoni, Polygenis (Polygenis) roberti beebei, Plocopsylla (Plocopsylla) silewi, Plocopsylla (Plocopsylla) wilesi and Tunga terasma) are added to the list for Argentina. Nine species new to science are included, described on the bases of specimens collected from Argentina (Ctenidiosomus austrinus, Ectinorus (Ectinorus) lareschiae, Ectinorus (Ectinorus) spiculatus, Ectinorus (Ectinorus) morenoi, Hectopsylla narium, Plocopsylla (Plocopsylla) linardii, Neotyphloceras crackensis, Neotyphloceras pardinasii and Tunga perforans). Information provided herein contributes to the knowledge of the fleas from Argentina, necessary to a better understanding of their role as parasites themselves and vectors of zoonotic importance.