Xenopus ERK2, also known as Xp42 MAPK, is activated by progesterone and regulates meiotic progression in the oocytes through activation of the phosphatase Cdc25C and inhibition of the protein kinase Myt1, thus promoting dephosphorylation and activation of cyclinB/Cdc2 (MPF). Indeed, it has been reported that stress protein kinases p38 and JNK are activated during meiotic progression and, more specifically, that p38γ regulates meiosis through activation of Cdc25C. However, the role of JNK in meiotic progression is not so clear, and despite a 42kDa protein is detected with pJNK antibodies (XpJNK-p42), the specific isoform activated by progesterone has not been characterized in detail. The serine/threonine kinase MEKK1, an upstream activator of JNK and p38, is activated during stress conditions and regulates apoptosis in different cell types. Here we show that ectopic expression of a constitutively active MEKK1 in Xenopus oocytes induces phosphorylation of p38, JNK and ERK and accelerates meiotic progression induced by progesterone. Inhibition of each individual pathway reduces the acceleration of meiosis induced by MEKK1. However, constitutively active MEKK1 induces phosphorylation of two JNK isoforms (p40 and p49, corresponding to JNK1-1 and JNK1-2 respectively) distinct to the p42 protein detected with pJNK antibodies during meiotic progression (XpJNK-p42). Moreover, a constitutively active MKK7, which specifically activates the JNK signaling pathway and induces phosphorylation of the p40 and p49 isoforms, does not accelerate meiotic progression. Immunoprecipitation of the p42 protein with pJNK antibodies and subsequent analysis by mass spectrometry shows that XpJNK-p42 is, in fact, pERK2. Ectopic expression of ERK2 in oocytes treated with progesterone or hyperosmotic shock indicates that ERK2 is phosphorylated in both conditions but is only detected with pJNK antibodies in progesterone-treated oocytes. In addition, mature oocytes only present a moderate increase of Jun kinase activity, which is not inhibited by SP600125. In conclusion, JNKs are not activated during meiotic progression and XpJNK-p42 is a post-translational modification of pERK induced by progesterone.

Furan is a chemical hepatocarcinogen in mice and rats. Its previously postulated cancer mode of action (MOA) is chronic cytotoxicity followed by sustained regenerative proliferation; however, its molecular basis is unknown. To this end, we conducted toxicogenomic analysis of B3C6F1 mouse livers following three week exposures to non-carcinogenic (0, 1, 2mg/kgbw) or carcinogenic (4 and 8mg/kgbw) doses of furan. We saw enrichment for pathways responsible for cytotoxicity: stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) and death receptor (DR5 and TNF-alpha) signaling, and proliferation: extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) and TNF-alpha. We also noted the involvement of NF-kappaB and c-Jun in response to furan, which are genes that are known to be required for liver regeneration. Furan metabolism by CYP2E1 produces cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA), which is required for ensuing cytotoxicity and oxidative stress. NRF2 is a master regulator of gene expression during oxidative stress and we suggest that chronic NFR2 activity and chronic inflammation may represent critical transition events between the adaptive (regeneration) and adverse (cancer) outcomes. Another objective of this study was to demonstrate the applicability of toxicogenomics data in quantitative risk assessment. We modeled benchmark doses for our transcriptional data and previously published cancer data, and observed consistency between the two. Margin of exposure values for both transcriptional and cancer endpoints were also similar. In conclusion, using furan as a case study we have demonstrated the value of toxicogenomics data in elucidating dose-dependent MOA transitions and in quantitative risk assessment.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a malignant disease influencing numerous men worldwide every year. However, the exact pathogenesis and the genes, environment, and other factors involved have not been explained clearly. Some studies have proposed that cell signaling pathways might play a key role in the development and progression of PCa. According to our previous study, the RTK/ERK pathway containing nearly 40 genes was associated with PCa risk. On the basis of these genes, we conducted a meta-analysis with our own Chinese Consortium for Prostate Cancer Genetics (ChinaPCa) study and available studies in the databases to describe the association between the pathway and PCa on the SNP level. The results suggested that rs4764695/IGF1 (recessive model: pooled OR=0.92, 95%CI=0.852-0.994, P=0.034; I(2)=0%, P=0.042; allele analysis: pooled OR=0.915, 95%CI=0.874-0.958, P=0; I(2)=0%, P=0.424; codominant model: OR=0.835, 95%CI=0.762-0.916, P=0; I(2)=0%, P=0.684) and rs1570360/VEGF (recessive model: OR=0.596, 95%CI=0.421-0.843, P=0.003; I(2)=23.9%, P=0.269; codominant model: OR=0.576, 95%CI=0.404-0.820, P=0.002; I(2)=49.1%, P=0.140) were significantly associated with PCa. In subgroup analysis, the relationship was also found in Caucasians for IGF1 (dominant model: OR=0.834, 95%CI=0.769-0.904, P=0; allele analysis: OR=0.908, 95%CI=0.863-0.955, P=0; AA vs CC: OR=0.829, 95%CI=0.750-0.916, P=0; AC vs CC: OR=0.837, 95%CI=0.768-0.912, P=0). In addition, in Asians (allele analysis: OR=0.21, 95%CI=0.168-0.262, P=0) and Caucasians (recessive model: OR=0.453, 95%CI: 0.240-0.855, P=0.015; codominant model: OR=0.464, 95%CI=0.240-0.898, P=0.023) for VEGF, the association was significant. The results indicated that rs4764695/IGF1 and rs1570360/VEGF might play a key role in the development and progression of PCa. On the SNP level, we suggest that the study gives us a new view of gene-pathway analysis and targeted therapy for PCa.