BACKGROUND: Although synthetic preservatives and antioxidants may have high antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, they are usually associated with adverse effects on human health. Currently, there is a growing interest in natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents. This study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of two medicinal plant extracts and one active compound. Olive leaf extracts (0.2, 0.3, and 0.4% w/v), oleuropein (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6% w/v), thyme oil (0.1%), and oleuropein in combination with thyme oil (0.4% w/v and 0.1% v/v) were used against three bacterial strains (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus) and two fungal strains (Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger).
RESULTS: The use of oleuropein resulted in complete antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. In this context, a reduction of 7 logs was achieved during the storage period (4 weeks). Oleuropein showed no fungal activity at low concentrations (0.2%), but Aspergillus niger was reduced by 2.35 logs at higher concentrations (0.6% w/v). Similar antibacterial and antifungal properties were observed for the olive leaf extracts. Oleuropein at a concentration of 0.4 w/v and a mixture of oleuropein and thyme at concentrations of 0.4 and 0.1 (v/v) showed strong antimicrobial activity against the studied microorganisms.
CONCLUSIONS: Olive leaf extract, thyme oil, and oleuropein have strong antibacterial and weak antifungal properties. There was a good synergistic effect between oleuropein and thymol.

The effects induced by medicinal aromatic plants in biological systems vary with the type and amount of bioactive substances these plants contain. Whether the purified form of the main chemical components of these plants, such as carvacrol and thymol, or plant volatile oils containing tens of bioactive compounds are more effective remains a question of debate. This study was aimed at providing a comparative assessment of the effects of Origanum syriacum L. (wild mountain thyme) volatile oil (OSVO) and one of its main components, carvacrol (CRV), on the in vitro ruminal degradability of lucerne herbage and methane production during the degradation of lucerne. For this purpose, wild thyme was harvested at the beginning of the flowering period, and the OSVO was extracted from the plant by steam distillation. Gas production assays were performed in five groups of ruminal fluid samples, one of which was maintained for control purposes, and the other four 40/60/80 mg/l of OSVO and 60 mg/l of CRV were added. Compared to the control group, in the samples with the added CRV and OSVO, the amounts of in vitro total gas and methane production were observed to have been affected, but no decrease was detected in the ruminal protozoa counts. The level of ammonia nitrogen was lowest in the groups, in which CRV and 40 mg/l of OSVO (P < 0.01) were added. The ruminal protozoa counts were not affected by the addition of CRV and OSVO. While the total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) and propionic acid (PA) concentrations in the in vitro fermentation fluid of lucerne herbage were low in all the groups, butyric acid was detected at a level of 40 mg/l in the group where CRV was added. The OSVO was ascertained to have induced dose-dependent alterations in the investigated in vitro digestion parameters. In result, CRV (60 mg/l) and OSVO (40 mg/l) were determined to have shown a relatively positive effect on the in vitro ruminal gas production. The anti-methanogenic effect of the plant extracts was due to the decreased digestibility of the lucerne herbage. This can have a positive impact on the environment, but the same cannot be said for the animal nutrient use and animal performance.

This study was performed to check the effect of different essential oils on chitosan and gelatin-based antimicrobial films. Films prepared from biopolymers contain better mechanical strength but lack in moisture barrier properties. In order to increase the moisture barrier properties of chitosan and gelatin-based films in the current research work, different essential oils, i.e., thyme, cinnamon, basil, ginger, and cumin, at varying concentrations (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0%) were incorporated. Moreover, the concentrations of glycerol (plasticizer) and emulsifier (Tween 20) were kept constant to maintain homogeneity in the research. Antimicrobial films composed of gelatin and chitosan infused with essential oils were evaluated for their physicochemical (emulsion stability, particle size, and viscosity), FT-IR, microstructural (scanning electron microscopy), moisture barrier (water vapor permeability), and antimicrobial properties (E. coli, Salmonella, and S. aureus). Study outcomes elucidated significant variations (p < 0.05) as the concentration of essential oil was increased in the film solutions. An increased concentration of essential oil (2.0%) significantly enhanced the moisture barrier properties (1.12 ± 0.03 g.mm/kPa.h.m2). Nevertheless, the tensile strength decreased (38.60 ± 1.4 to 31.50 ± 1.5 MPa) from 1 to 2%. The increase in essential oil concentration in the emulsion-based films also influenced their physicochemical characteristics, such as droplet size, viscosity, and emulsion stability. At lower concentrations (1.0%), films exhibited a uniform microstructure but lacked moisture barrier properties. Antimicrobial properties against E. coli, Salmonella, and S. aureus showed an increased inhibition effect as the concentration of essential oil was increased. Of the essential oil-based films, ginger- and basil-based films showed greater inhibition effects as compared to the other essential oils. Overall, antimicrobial films containing a 1.5% concentration of ginger and basil oil showed better results as compared to the other treatments for mechanical, moisture barrier, and antimicrobial properties, while films with a 2.0% oil concentration showed better antimicrobial and moisture barrier properties but lacked in mechanical properties. Essential oil-based antimicrobial films have prospective applications in foods, specifically in fresh and processed food items such as seafood, meat, chicken, and sausages.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of thyme, ginger, and their nano-particles, as alternatives to antibiotic growth promotors (AGP), on productive performance, carcass traits, meat quality and gut health of broiler chickens. A total of 270 one-day-old broiler chicks were randomly distributed into 6 groups, each consisting of 3 replicates (n = 15 chicks/replicate). The birds in group 1 were fed the control diet which contained neither antibiotic growth promotors nor phytogenic feed additives (PFA). Birds in group 2 were fed diets containing 0.05% of AGP (Bacitracin methylene disalicylate). Chicks in group 3 and 4 were fed diets supplemented with 1.0% of thyme and ginger, respectively, whereas birds in group 5 and 6 were offered diets including 0.10% of nano-thyme and nano-ginger, respectively. The experiment lasted for 35 days. It was found that thyme and ginger with their nano-products, like the antibiotic, improved the body weight, weight gain and feed conversion rate of birds. The effect of ginger and nano-ginger on body weight and weight gain was greater than other treatments. During the overall feeding period, the feed cost of production was the highest in antibiotic group, but was the lowest in ginger and nano-ginger treatments. There was no effect of dietary treatments on carcass yield or organs weight except bursa of Fabricius and abdominal fat. Thyme, ginger and their nano-composites increased the weight of bursa and reduced the abdominal fat amount. The phytogenic additives and their nano-particles improved the colour, water holding capacity, and flavor of meat. Moreover, these additives reduced the total intestinal bacterial count as well as the total aerobic mesophilic count of meat. The effect of PFA and their nano-particles on the bacterial count was similar to that of antibiotic. In conclusion, thyme and ginger with their nano- particles can be considered as promising agents in feeding of broilers to improve the growth performance, gut health and meat quality. Moreover, these additives can be used as alternatives to AGP to overcome its health hazards and the high cost. The nanotechnology of herbal plants enables them to be added in smaller amounts in poultry diets with producing the same effect of raw ingredients, and this could be due to the higher bioavailability.

Essential oils (EOs), as rumen additives, decreased CH4 emissions in in vitro trials but results from in vivo studies are still limited. We investigated the effects of Origanum vulgare (OEO) and Thymus vulgaris (TEO) EOs on in vivo methane emissions from Nellore beef cattle. Six adult rumen-cannulated Nellore cattle were used in a double 3 × 3 Latin square design. Treatments consisted of three diets containing either 3 mL OEO per kg of concentrate, 3 mL TEO/kg of concentrate, or no EO addition. The experimental period consisted of three 21 d feeding periods and methane production was measured using the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) technique from Day 16 to Day 21 of each feeding period. Intake, total apparent digestibility (dry matter as well as neutral and acid detergent fiber), and rumen parameters (pH, ammoniacal nitrogen concentration, and short-chain fatty acids) were also evaluated. The EOs did not decrease CH4 emissions and had no effect on rumen parameters.

Recently, the development of functional beverages has been enhanced to promote health and nutritional well-being. Thus, the fermentation of plant foods with lactic acid bacteria can enhance their antioxidant capacity and others like anti-inflammatory activity, which may depend on the variations in the total content and profile of (poly)phenols. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of fermentation with two strains of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum of several herbal infusions from thyme, rosemary, echinacea, and pomegranate peel on the (poly)phenolic composition and whether lacto-fermentation can contribute to enhance their in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects on human colon myofibroblast CCD18-Co cells. HPLC-MS/MS analyses revealed that fermentation increased the content of the phenolics present in all herbal infusions. In vitro analyses indicated that pomegranate infusion showed higher antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, followed by thyme, echinacea, and rosemary, based on the total phenolic content. After fermentation, despite increasing the content of phenolics, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects via reduction pro-inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-8 and PGE2) were similar to those of their corresponding non-fermented infusions, with the exception of a greater reduction in lacto-fermented thyme. Overall, the findings suggest that the consumption of lacto-fermented herbal infusions could be beneficial in alleviating intestinal inflammatory disorders.

UNASSIGNED: Processing of Medicinal Aromatic Plants (MAPs) results in the production of a significant amount of by-products, which are not commercially exploitable. Towards this direction, we studied extensively the by-products of oregano and thyme, remaining after the aromatization of olive oils with microwave assisted extraction (MAE). The purpose of the study was the exploitation of the \"wastes\" of these two economically significant herbs of Greece, for the potential development of innovative bioactive products.
UNASSIGNED: Hence, superior and inferior quality plant material from Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum and Thymus vulgaris, were extracted with extra virgin olive oil using MAE. For the evaluation of raw plant material, beside the characterization of the essential oils (EOs), the hydroalcoholic extracts of superior and inferior plant material were afforded by ultrasound assistant extraction (UAE). In addition, the remaining plant material after the flavoring of olive oil by MAE, was extracted with c-Hex, MeOH, H2O:MeOH using UAE. All the extracts were evaluated for their DPPH free radical scavenging activity and total phenolic content (TPC) as well as their chemical profile was investigated by HPTLC. In parallel, the EOs, the olive oils and the c-Hex extracts were analyzed by GC-MS and Headspace Solid Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME)-GC-MS.
UNASSIGNED: The results showed that the composition of the EOs and the volatile fraction of the olive oil extracts were similar for the superior quality material whereas for the inferior the composition of the volatile fraction of olive oil extracts was not analogous to the respective EOs. GC-MS analyses of oregano and thyme by-products revealed the presence of carvacrol, thymol, γ-terpinene and p-cymene among the major constituents. Moreover, the hydroalcoholic extracts obtained from the plant material remaining after olive oil flavoring with MAE showed similar phenolic content and scavenging activity with the hydroalcoholic extracts of the corresponding raw plant materials underlying their potent use in the preparation of high-added value products such as nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals as well as enriched animal nutrition products.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most frequent malignancy in men worldwide. Essential oils (EOs) are natural products which can act in cancer suppression by several mechanisms. In this work, a nanotechnological approach was used to develop and evaluate the antineoplastic effects of EOs loaded by nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). Three different NLC systems composed of cinnamon, sage or thyme EOs were optimized using factorial design (23). The optimal formulations were characterized in terms of biophysical parameters, structure, stability, in vivo safety and efficacy. All optimized NLC formulations exhibited excellent structural properties and stability over a year (25 °C). They proved to be in vitro and in vivo biocompatible on PNT2 normal prostate cells and on chicken embryos (CE), respectively. In PC3 PCa cells, optimized NLCs inhibited cell proliferation and migration and changed its morphology. In CE xenograft tumor, NLCs have inhibited tumor growth and angiogenesis. The results from this work suggested that all developed EO-based NLC formulations had their stability improved while the biological activity remains unchanged.

UNASSIGNED: The use of traditional medicine against viral diseases in animal production has been practiced worldwide. Herbal extracts possess organic substances that would improve chicken body performance.
UNASSIGNED: The current study was designed to evaluate the effect of either thyme or ginseng oil in regard to their immune-modulatory, antiviral, and growth promoter properties.
UNASSIGNED: Two hundred and forty-one-day-old broiler chicks were allocated into eight equal groups as the following: group 1; nonvaccinated and nontreated and group 2; Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccinated and nontreated. Birds of groups 3 and 4 were treated with thyme oil (200 mg/l of drinking water for 12 hours/day) without or with NDV vaccination. Birds of groups 5 and 6 were treated with ginseng oil (200 mg/l of drinking water for 12 hours/day) without or with NDV vaccination. Birds of groups 7 and 8 were treated with a combination of ginseng oil (100 mg/l of drinking water) and thyme oil (100 mg/l of drinking water) for 12 hours/day. On the 35th day of life, birds in all the experimental groups were given 0.1 ml of a virulent genotype VIId NDV strain suspension containing 106.3 EID50/ml intramuscularly.
UNASSIGNED: Administration of ginseng and thyme oils each alone or simultaneously to birds either vaccinated or nonvaccinated elicited a significant improvement in body performance parameters. Administration of thyme and ginseng each alone or concurrently to vaccinated birds (Gp 4, 6, and 8) induced a higher hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titer of 6, 7.3, and 6.3 log2 at 21 days of age, 6.7, 7.6, and 7 log2, at 28 days of age and 7, 8, and 6.8 log2 at 35 days of age, respectively. Challenge with vNDV genotype VII led to an increase in the NDV-specific HI-Ab titers 10 days post challenge in all the experimental groups. In addition, thyme, ginseng oils, or a combination of them improved the protection from mortality in vaccinated birds; by 100%, 100%, and 90%, respectively, compared with 80% protection from mortality in vaccinated-only birds post-NDV challenge. Moreover, NDV-vaccinated birds treated either with thyme; ginseng or their combination showed negative detection of the virus in both tracheal and cloacal swabs and nonvaccinated groups that received oils showed improvement in vNDV shedding in tracheal and cloacal swabs.
UNASSIGNED: It could be concluded that the administration of thyme and ginseng essential oils to broilers can improve productive performance parameters, stimulate humoral immunity against, and protect from vNDV infection.

Origanum grosii (L.) and Thymus pallidus (L.) are medicinal plants recognized for their uses in traditional medicine. In this context, the aim of this article is to highlight the results of a phytochemical analysis (HPLC), with particular emphasis on the antioxidant (DPPH, TAC, and FRAP), analgesic, anti-inflammatory, haemagglutinin-test-related, and hemolytic activities of the total extracts of these plants. Phytochemical analysis via HPLC revealed that licoflavone C (30%) is the main compound in Origanum grosii, while hesperidin (43%) is found in T. pallidus. Evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of Origanum grosii and Thymus pallidus using the DPPH, TAC, and FRAP methods revealed an IC50 of the order of 0.085 mg/mL and 0.146 mg/mL, an EC50 of the order of 0.167 mg/mL and 0.185 mg/mL, and a total antioxidant capacity of between 750 mg EQ/g and 900 mg EQ/g, respectively. Analgesic evaluations revealed writhes inhibition of the order of 97.83% for O. grosii and 90% for T. pallidus. In addition, both plant extracts showed limited hemolytic activity, not exceeding 30% at a concentration of 100 mg/mL. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory potential showed edema inhibition of the order of 94% (800 mg/kg) for O. grosii and 86% (800 mg/kg) for T. pallidus. These results highlight the potential applications of these extracts in pharmacological research.