Temperamental characteristics and emerging cognitive control are meaningful predictors of children\'s development of adaptive and maladaptive social behaviors during the preschool period. However, knowledge of the interplay of these pathways, when examined concurrently to highlight their individual contributions, is limited. Using a cross-sectional sample of 3-year-old children, we examined parent-reported discrete traits of negative (anger, fear, sadness, and shyness) and positive (low- and high-intensity pleasure) temperamental reactivity as predictors of children\'s prosociality and physical aggression. Further, we tested whether the effects of discrete temperament were moderated by cognitive control, as indexed by the N2 event-related potential, during a go/no-go task. Analyses focus on a subsample of children with an observable N2 (n = 66). When controlling for other relative temperament traits, several significant main effects emerged. Moreover, at low cognitive control (smaller N2), fear was negatively associated with aggression, whereas at high cognitive control, sadness was positively associated with aggression. Heightened anger was linked to reduced prosocial behavior when cognitive control was low but linked to greater prosocial behavior when cognitive control was high. The results highlight that discrete temperament traits predict individual differences in child outcomes but that associations depend on concurrent levels of cognitive control.

The relations between shyness and internalizing problems have been mainly explored at the individual level, with little known about its dynamics at the group level. This study aims to examine the mediating effect of individual-level sport engagement and the moderating effect of class-level sport participation in the relations between shyness and internalizing problems. The participants were 951 children attending primary and middle school from grade 3 to grade 7 (Mage = 11 years, 509 boys) in urban areas of China. Cross-sectional data were collected using self-report assessments. Multi-level analysis indicated that (1) shyness was positively associated with internalizing problems; (2) sport engagement partially mediated the relations between shyness and internalizing problems; and (3) class sport participation was a cross-level moderator in the mediating relations between shyness, sport engagement, and internalizing problems. Shy children in classes with a higher level of sport participation tend to have less sport engagement and more internalizing problems than those in classes with a lower level of sport participation. These findings illuminate implications from a multi-level perspective for shy children\'s adjustment in a Chinese context. The well-being of shy children could be improved by intervening in sport activity, addressing both individual engagement and group dynamics, such as class participation.

Shyness is typically associated with avoidant social behavior and restricted affect in new social situations. However, we know considerably less about how one child\'s shyness influences another child\'s behavior and affect in new social situations. Children\'s shyness was parent-reported when children were age 3 (N = 105, 52 girls, Mage = 3.50 years), and children were tested approximately 1 year later (Mage = 4.76 years) in same-gender dyads where they were asked to give an impromptu speech about their most recent birthday in front of an experimenter and the other member of the dyad. We examined whether children\'s shyness and speech order influenced their own and their social partner\'s observed behavior and affect during the speech. Regardless of speech order, children\'s own shyness was positively associated with their own avoidant social behavior and gaze aversion. Regardless of shyness, children who gave their speech second averted their gaze more than children who gave their speech first. We also found that children who gave their speech second displayed less positive affect if their social partner who they watched give the speech first was shyer. We speculate that some 4-year-old children may be sensitive to the avoidant behaviors of their shy peers and, in turn, respond with less animation when it is their turn to participate in the same activity. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We examined whether preschool children\'s shyness and speech order influenced their own and their social partner\'s observed behavior and affect during a dyadic speech task Children\'s own shyness was positively associated with their own avoidant social behavior and gaze aversion Children who gave their speech second averted their gaze more than children who gave their speech first. Children who gave their speech second displayed less positive affect if their social partner who they watched give a speech first was shyer These findings suggest that preschool-aged children are sensitive to learning about their environment indirectly through social observation.

The present study examined the moderating effect of children\'s emotion regulation on the relations between shyness and internalizing behavior in Turkish preschool children. Participants were N = 222 children (M = 58.20 months, SD = 11.24, 116 girls, 106 boys) attending five public kindergartens in Turkey. Mothers provided ratings of children\'s shyness and emotion regulation; teachers assessed children\'s internalizing behavior. Results indicated that shyness was positively associated with internalizing behavior and negatively associated with emotion regulation among Turkish preschool children. Moreover, children\'s emotion regulation significantly moderated the relationship between shyness and internalizing behavior. Specifically, among children with lower levels of emotion regulation, shyness was significantly and positively associated with internalizing behaviors while among children with higher levels of emotion regulation, shyness was not associated with internalizing behaviors. The current findings inform that the importance of improving children\'s emotional regulation to buffer the internalizing behaviors among Turkish shyness young children. The findings also highlight the importance of considering the meaning and implication of shyness for preschool children.

During the critical period of personality shaping and self-development, adolescents face unique challenges and opportunities. This study, based on Cognitive-Behavioral Theory, explored the relationship between shyness and self-consistency and congruence (hereinafter referred to as SCC), as well as its underlying mechanisms. Through a questionnaire survey on shyness, social comparison orientation, self-focused attention, and SCC among 984 adolescents, the results revealed that (1) Adolescent shyness negatively predicted SCC. (2) Social comparison orientation partially mediated the relationship between shyness and SCC. (3) Self-focused attention moderated the direct pathway of this mediation process, where a high level of self-focused attention exacerbated the negative impact of shyness on SCC. These findings offered a new perspective on understanding SCC and underscored the importance of addressing the information processing mechanisms of social comparison orientation and self-focused attention among shy adolescents in interventions aimed at promoting their psychological harmony and healthy growth.

Infants\' use of pointing gestures to direct and share attention develops during the first 2 years of life. Shyness, defined as an approach-avoidance motivational conflict during social interactions, may influence infants\' use of pointing. Recent research distinguished between positive (gaze and/or head aversions while smiling) and non-positive (gaze and/or head aversions without smiling) shyness, which are related to different social and cognitive skills. We investigated whether positive and non-positive shyness in 12-month-old (n = 38; 15 girls) and 15-month-old (n = 45; 15 girls) infants were associated with their production of pointing gestures. Infants\' expressions of shyness were observed during a social-exposure task in which the infant entered the laboratory room in their parent\'s arms and was welcomed by an unfamiliar person who provided attention and compliments. Infants\' pointing was measured with a pointing task involving three stimuli: pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. Positive shyness was positively associated with overall pointing at 15 months, especially in combination with high levels of non-positive shyness. In addition, infants who displayed more non-positive shyness pointed more frequently to direct the attention of the social partner to an unpleasant (vs. neutral) stimulus at both ages. Results indicate that shyness influences the early use of pointing to emotionally charged stimuli.

Does social media alleviate or exacerbate loneliness? Past research has shown mixed results regarding the relationship between social media usage and loneliness among younger and older adults. Unlike younger individuals, older adults may decrease their loneliness through social media interactions. Additionally, previous research has indicated that the link between social media use and loneliness can vary depending on one\'s shy tendency. Therefore, this study aims to explore the relationship between individuals\' social media use and loneliness while considering age and shyness tendency as moderating variables. The study employed a questionnaire survey conducted through convenience sampling, resulting in 234 valid responses from participants in Northern Taiwan. Among them, 113 were college students (aged 18 to 25, average age 19.40), and 121 were older adults (aged 50 to 82, average age 60.81). Using hierarchical regression analysis, results indicated that (1) age moderates the relationship between personal social media use and loneliness. Minimal differences were observed among younger individuals, but among older adults, increased social media usage time was associated with a significant reduction in loneliness. (2) Shyness tendency moderate the relationship between personal social media use and loneliness. Individuals with higher shyness tendency experience an increase in loneliness as their social media usage time lengthens.

Although temperamental shyness is conceptualized as a trait marked by cautiousness, we know relatively little about its relation to risk-taking. We examined how shyness was related to opportunities for risk-taking while considering how social context (i.e., presence of peers) and developmental stage (i.e., children and adolescents) might influence this relation. In the current study, 198 children (Mage = 10.17 years) and 221 adolescents (Mage = 13.46 years) completed the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) alone or during a peer observation manipulation. For children and adolescents, shyness was related to physiological arousal and self-reporting feeling anxious during the peer condition. However, peer observation did not influence the relation between shyness and behavioral responses during the BART. Across both alone and peer conditions, shyness was related to a longer response time for children and adolescents, which may reflect decisional conflict during risk-taking opportunities. Furthermore, shyness in children (but not in adolescents) was related to poorer performance (i.e., fewer points), whereas shyness was unrelated to risk-taking propensity (i.e., number of pumps) for both children and adolescents. Overall, although the presence of peers may induce anxiety during a risk-taking opportunity for children and adolescents higher in shyness, this does not appear to modify their risk-taking behaviors. Instead, shyer children and adolescents in general may take a longer time to decide whether to act in a risky manner, whereas shy children in particular may show poorer performance in obtaining a reward on a risk-taking task.

BACKGROUND: Suicidal behavior is an important health issue, representing a leading cause of mortality, particularly among young adults. Depression was found to be predictive of suicide risk and predicted by shyness. Consequently, we tested a model wherein shyness leads to depression, which in turn leads to suicide risk. Moreover, we expected gender to moderate the effect of shyness on depression and suicide risk.
METHODS: A convenience sample of 478 first-year college students (51% women, Age: M = 25.42, SD = 3.61) completed online self-report questionnaires assessing suicide risk, depression, shyness, and demographic variables.
RESULTS: As expected, shyness was significantly correlated with depression (r = 0.40) and suicide risk (r = 0.24), and depression and suicide risk were also correlated with each other (r = 0.57). Depression statistically mediated the relationship between shyness and suicide risk (indirect effect for women = 0.92, SE = 0.16; for men = 0.72, SE = 0.17). Gender did not moderate the mediation effect. However, a direct link between shyness and suicide risk was found only among men (direct effect = 0.52, SE = 0.21).
CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that shyness may be a significant factor in the development of depression and suicide risk, potentially serving as a valuable marker for identifying at-risk individuals. Moreover, clinicians should be aware of these associations, particularly among men, in order to maintain and support mental health as well as reduce suicidality.

Personality is widely observed in animals and has important ecological and evolutionary implications. In addition to being heritable, personality traits are also influenced by the environment. Population density commonly affects animal behavior, but the way in which it shapes animal personality remains largely unknown. In this study, we reared juvenile crayfish at different population densities and measured their personality traits (shyness, exploration, and aggression) after reaching sexual maturity. Our results showed repeatability for each behavior in all treatments, except for the shyness of females at medium density. There was a negative correlation between shyness and exploration in each treatment, and aggression and exploration were positively correlated in medium- and high-density females. These indicate the presence of a behavior syndrome. On average, the crayfish raised at higher population densities were less shy, more exploratory, and more aggressive. We found no behavioral differences between the sexes in crayfish. These results suggested that population density may affect the average values of behavioral traits rather than the occurrence of personality traits. Our study highlights the importance of considering population density as a factor influencing personality traits in animals and, therefore, might help us to understand animal personality development.