UNASSIGNED: Self-medication is a common practice worldwide, and its prevalence ranges between 20% and 80% among patients suffering from dental pain. The socioeconomic status of an individual plays a key role in self-medication practice, especially sex and education level. This study aims to investigate the extent of self-medication practice for toothache due to dental caries among adults in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
UNASSIGNED: This was an analytical cross-sectional study carried out over 6 months. It included adult patients presenting with toothache in public dental clinics. A questionnaire captured information on demography, self-medication practice, the substance used for self-medication, duration of self-medication, and reason for self-medication. Univariate analysis was carried out to assess factors associated with self-care remedies. The probability level of α < 0.05 was selected for statistical significance.
UNASSIGNED: A total of 420 participants took part in this survey with a majority (54.3%) being females. The ages of the participants ranged between 18 years and 79 years, with a mean age of 33.37 (SD = 12.64) years. Nearly all (98.5%) participants used some sort of self-prescribed remedies for managing toothache before attending a dental clinic for appropriate treatment. The sociodemographic status of the participants did not influence the practice of self-medication.
UNASSIGNED: About 98% of patients suffering from toothache in Tanzania practice self-medication, and it cuts across all social strata of the adult dental population.
UNASSIGNED: Patients with toothache secondary to dental caries participated in the pilot study and were consulted on the suitability of the study tool.

BACKGROUND: In Germany, over-the-counter (OTC) medicines may only be dispensed by community pharmacies (CPs). German CPs must ensure \'adequate\' counselling, including the cost of medicines. Along with information gathering and advice giving as classic aspects of counselling, the aim was also to investigate counselling indicators of product and price transparency.
METHODS: The cross-sectional study was based on the covert simulated patient (SP) methodology and was conducted in a random sample of CPs stratified by districts in the major German city of Munich. Each of the 178 selected CPs was visited once by one of five trained female students. They simulated a symptom-based sub-scenario 1 with a request for an OTC medicine for a headache and a sub-scenario 2 with standardised information regarding product and price transparency. The assessment, completed immediately postvisit by the SPs, included a total of 23 items.
RESULTS: All 178 scheduled visits were completed successfully. The median counselling score with the classic items was 3.0 out of 12 points (interquartile range [IQR] 4.25) and when expanded by items for product and price transparency the score was 4.0 out of 14 points (IQR 4.00). A selection of medicines was offered unsolicited in 38.2% of the visits and in 5.6% of the visits voluntary price information was provided before the transaction. A request for a cheaper medicine led to a significant price reduction (Wilcoxon signed-rank test; p < 0.001, r = 0.869).
CONCLUSIONS: Due to the below-average level of counselling, the regional chambers of pharmacists are recommended to initiate measures for improvement. There is also potential for optimisation with regard to product and price transparency as an important extension of the classic counselling aspects. It is therefore recommended that the government raise customers\' awareness of the cost of medicines.

OBJECTIVE: Many children in sub-Saharan Africa die from infectious diseases like malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhoea that can be prevented by early diagnosis, effective and targeted treatment. This study aimed to gain insights into case management practices by parents before they present their children to hospital.
METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study among 332 parents attending a district hospital with their under-fives symptomatic with fever and/or diarrhoea between November 2019 and July 2020 in rural Tanzania. Timely and targeted treatment was defined as seeking health care within 24 h of fever onset, and continued fluid intake in case of diarrhoea.
RESULTS: The main admission diagnoses were acute respiratory infections (61.8%), malaria (25.3%), diarrhoea (18.4%) and suspected sepsis (8.1%). The majority of children (91%) received treatment prior to admission, mostly antipyretics (75.6%), local herbal medicines (26.8%), and antibiotics (17.8%)-half of them without prescription from a clinician. For diarrhoea, the use of oral rehydration solution was rare (9.0%), although perceived as easily accessible and affordable. 49.4% of the parents presented their children directly to the hospital, 23.2% went to a pharmacy/drug shop and 19.3% to a primary health facility first. Malaria symptoms began mostly 3 days before the hospital visit; only 25.4% of febrile children visited any health facility within 24 h of disease onset. Prior use of local herbal medicine (AOR = 3.2; 95% CI 1.4-7.3), visiting the pharmacy (adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 3.1; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0-9.8), the dispensary being the nearest health facility (AOR = 3.0; 95% CI: 1.5-6.2), and financial difficulties (AOR = 2.2; 95% CI 1.1-4.5) were associated with delayed treatment.
CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that antipyretics and antibiotics dispensed at pharmacies/drug shops, as well as use of local herbal medicines, delay early diagnosis and treatment, which can be life-threatening. Pharmacies/drug shops could be integrated as key focal points for sensitising community members on how to respond to paediatric illnesses and encourage the use of oral rehydration solutions.

UNASSIGNED: The crises of the last decades have provided more evidence of the need for health literacy as a measure of resilience and preparedness. In this study the relationship between health literacy and health-seeking behavior was investigated.
UNASSIGNED: This study used a cross-sectional design with a questionnaire of five sections dedicated to health-seeking behavior, health literacy, family background, socioeconomic status and demographics. Health-seeking behavior was used in three dimensions namely preference for hospitals, self-medication, and herbal medicine. The questionnaire was completed by 262 students at the University of Ghana.
UNASSIGNED: A significant linear regression model (R = 0.39, R² = 0.15, Adjusted R² = 0.13, F = 8.89, p < 0.001) supported the relationship between health literacy and health-seeking in health facilities such as hospitals. A Pearson correlation further showed an association between self-medication and preference for herbal medication.
UNASSIGNED: Findings support the crucial role of health literacy in timely hospital visits by patients. This implies the need to improve health literacy through education, policy, and research. This can promote prevention of diseases through timely health-seeking and improve preparedness against health crises. The study suggests health literacy should be integrated into educational curricula and regular health campaigns run by public health agencies.

UNASSIGNED: The promotion of rational use of antibiotics among pregnant women is eminent not only for the risk of teratogenicity in the developing fetus but also the risk of drug resistance with its concomitant high cost of health care. Studies on antibiotic self-medication among pregnant women in Northern Ghana are rare. Improving the knowledge and awareness among the vulnerable groups about the appropriate use of antibiotics can help in limiting the antibiotic resistance menace. We, therefore, conducted this study to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) toward antibiotic use among pregnant women attending an antenatal clinic at a primary health care in Tolon, Northern Region, Ghana.
UNASSIGNED: We conducted a cross-sectional study using an interviewer-administered questionnaire to assess the KAP of 702 pregnant women on antibiotic use. This study was conducted in the Tolon Health Center (THC) from March 2021 and ended in October 2021.
UNASSIGNED: In this study, 55.6% of pregnant women had good knowledge and 45.3% of them had engaged in self-medication with antibiotics while pregnant. There were statistically significant associations between participants\' background and obstetric characteristics and knowledge of antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance, except for age, marital status, and parity. Also, there was a significant association between pregnant women\'s knowledge and self-medication or over-the-counter purchase of antibiotics.
UNASSIGNED: We concluded that higher education level, monthly income, good practice, and good knowledge were significantly associated with a reduced likelihood of self-medication with antibiotics. A well-structured education that could be easily accepted and understood by pregnant women on the risks of antibiotic self-medication should be included in the routine education at the antenatal clinics.

BACKGROUND: Why do potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and substance use (SU) so commonly co-occur during adolescence? Causal hypotheses developed from the study of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorder (SUD) among adults have not yet been subject to rigorous theoretical analysis or empirical tests among adolescents with the precursors to these disorders: PTEs and SU. Establishing causality demands accounting for various factors (e.g. genetics, parent education, race/ethnicity) that distinguish youth endorsing PTEs and SU from those who do not, a step often overlooked in previous research.
METHODS: We leveraged nationwide data from a sociodemographically diverse sample of youth (N = 11,468) in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study. PTEs and substance use prevalence were assessed annually. To account for the many pre-existing differences between youth with and without PTE/SU (i.e. confounding bias) and provide rigorous tests of causal hypotheses, we linked within-person changes in PTEs and SU (alcohol, cannabis, nicotine) across repeated measurements and adjusted for time-varying factors (e.g. age, internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and friends\' use of substances).
RESULTS: Before adjusting for confounding using within-person modeling, PTEs and SU exhibited significant concurrent associations (βs = .46-1.26, ps < .05) and PTEs prospectively predicted greater SU (βs = .55-1.43, ps < .05) but not vice versa. After adjustment for confounding, the PTEs exhibited significant concurrent associations for alcohol (βs = .14-.23, ps < .05) and nicotine (βs = .16, ps < .05) but not cannabis (βs = -.01, ps > .05) and PTEs prospectively predicted greater SU (βs = .28-.55, ps > .05) but not vice versa.
CONCLUSIONS: When tested rigorously in a nationwide sample of adolescents, we find support for a model in which PTEs are followed by SU but not for a model in which SU is followed by PTEs. Explanations for why PTSD and SUD co-occur in adults may need further theoretical analysis and adaptation before extension to adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Self-medication practice among pregnant women is a global concern. However, its understanding in the Indian context is limited due to a lack of comprehensive studies.
OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to comprehensively assess the prevalence of self-medication, the medications used for self-medication, diseases/conditions associated with self-medication, and the reasons for self-medication among Indian pregnant women.
METHODS: This study was carried out following the guidelines outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). A thorough search was done in PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar to find articles that were published up until May 2023. Inclusion criteria comprised observational studies reporting self-medication prevalence among pregnant women in India. Data were extracted using a standardized sheet, and a random-effects model was applied to determine the overall prevalence of self-medication using R software. The I2 statistic was employed to assess the heterogeneity among the studies.
RESULTS: This study analyzed eight studies with a collective sample size of 2208 pregnant women. The pooled prevalence of self-medication among pregnant Indian women was 19.3% (95% CI: 7.5%-41.3%; I2 = 99%; p < 0.01). Common self-treated conditions were cold, cough, fever, headache, and stomach disorders. Antipyretics, analgesics, antihistamines, and antacids were frequently used for self-medication. The perception of mild ailment, immediate alleviation, convenience, time savings, and advice from family, friends, or the media were all reasons for self-medication. Local pharmacies were the most usual source for obtaining drugs, and pharmacists, family, friends, and past prescriptions were common sources of medicine information.
CONCLUSIONS: A low yet substantial number of pregnant women in India are engaged in self-medication practices. Appropriate strategies need to be planned to reduce self-medication practices to attain sustainable developmental goals for maternal health in India.

UNASSIGNED: Self-medication is a worldwide phenomenon that brings advantages and disadvantages to public health and health systems. This study investigated the extent and causes of self-medication among medical university students and its implications for public health in Iran in 2020.
UNASSIGNED: The present study was designed as a descriptive-analytical cross-sectional study that examined the knowledge, attitude, and practice of self-medication. The population of the study was the students of health sciences programs who all entered the study. The data collection tool included a questionnaire designed online and available to students. The content validity ratio of the questionnaire was 0.84, and the alpha Cronbach coefficient was calculated at 0.8936.
UNASSIGNED: The prevalence of self-medication among medical university students was 19%. The most common reason for self-medication was the safety of medicines (66.67%). The most usual form of medication used was the tablet (35.67%), the most common drug taken was acetaminophen (69.01%), and the most common disease to self-medicate for was headache (67.36%). Estimating the odds ratio of self-medication with demographic variables showed no relationship. However, after adjusting the variables, age and type of degree showed an association with self-medication, as the older participants and postgraduate students had positive attitudes toward self-medication.
UNASSIGNED: Self-medication may be helpful, but it often needs proper guidance and logic and can carry various risks. Considering that medical sciences students will be influential in society in the future, it is necessary to pay more attention to correcting their drug use culture and providing access to health services for everyone. Appropriate prescription of medicines, controlling drug sales in pharmacies, highlighting the role of pharmacists in safe self-medication, and controlling the prevalence of self-medication is necessary.

Despite Radiation-induced dermatitis is a self-limiting complication, it can be complicated if inappropriate self-medications have been used such as opium latex traditional extract.

Leaf-swallowing by chimpanzees Pan troglodytes has been hypothesized to control parasites, but it has not yet been shown to be associated with specific parasitic infections. This report takes advantage of a tapeworm infestation among wild chimpanzees to examine whether leaf-swallowing was associated with the presence of tapeworms. Leaf-swallowing was monitored over 6.5 years in two chimpanzee communities in Kibale National Park (Uganda). In one community, tape-worms ?Bertiella studeri were found only during a seven-month period, when they occurred in every month. During this period, leaf-swallowing occurred at an unusually high rate, and dungs that contained tapeworm fragments tended to contain whole leaves. These data suggest that tape-worm infections increased the rate at which chimpanzees swallowed whole leaves. However, this does not mean that tapeworms were necessarily controlled as a result. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.