背景:对于皮肤较黑的患者,许多商品脉搏血氧计的校准不足。我们通过对照实验证明了对外周血氧饱和度(SpO2)差异的定量测量。为了缓解这种情况,我们介绍OptoBeat,基于智能手机的超低成本光学传感系统,可捕获SpO2和心率,同时校准肤色差异。我们的传感系统可以由商品组件和3D打印夹子制成,价格约为1美元。在我们的实验中,我们展示了OptoBeat系统的功效,可以在低至75%的水平下测量实际值的1%以内的SpO2。
目的:这项工作的目的是测试以下假设,并实施一种超低成本的智能手机适配器来测量SpO2:肤色对脉搏血氧计测量具有显着影响(假设1),肤色图像可用于校准脉搏血氧计误差(假设2),和SpO2可以用智能手机相机使用屏幕作为光源测量(假设3)。
方法:在离体实验中使用与人皮肤具有相同光学性质的合成皮肤。将肤色标度放置在图像中用于校准和地面实况。为了实现广泛的SpO2测量,我们给羊血再充氧,然后通过合成动脉。将定制光学系统从智能手机屏幕(闪烁的红色和蓝色)连接到分析物,并连接到手机的相机以进行测量。
结果:根据Fitzpatrick量表将3种肤色准确分类为2型、3型和5型。使用测量的红色之间的欧几里得距离进行分类,绿色,蓝色的价值观。传统的脉搏血氧计测量(n=2000)在使用ANOVA(直流电:F2,5997=3.1170×105,P<.01;交流电:F2,5997=8.07×106,P<.01)的交流电和直流电测量中显示出肤色之间的显著差异。连续SpO2测量(n=400;10秒样本,在离体实验中使用OptoBeat捕获总共67分钟)从95%到75%。通过二次支持向量机回归和10倍交叉验证(R2=0.97,均方根误差=0.7,均方误差=0.49,平均绝对误差=0.5),测量精度在基本事实的1%以内。在人类参与者概念验证实验中(N=3;样本=3×N,持续时间=每个样品20-30秒),SpO2测量的准确度在地面实况的0.5%以内,脉搏率测量的准确度在地面实况的1.7%以内。
结论:在这项工作中,我们证明肤色对SpO2测量以及OptoBeat的设计和评估有显著影响。超低成本的OptoBeat系统使智能手机能够对肤色进行分类以进行校准,可靠地测量低至75%的SpO2,并标准化以避免基于肤色的偏见。
BACKGROUND: Many commodity pulse oximeters are insufficiently calibrated for patients with darker skin. We demonstrate a quantitative measurement of this disparity in peripheral blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) with a controlled experiment. To mitigate this, we present OptoBeat, an ultra-low-cost smartphone-based optical sensing system that captures SpO2 and heart rate while calibrating for differences in skin tone. Our sensing system can be constructed from commodity components and 3D-printed clips for approximately US $1. In our experiments, we demonstrate the efficacy of the OptoBeat system, which can measure SpO2 within 1% of the ground truth in levels as low as 75%.
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this work is to test the following hypotheses and implement an ultra-low-cost smartphone adapter to measure SpO2: skin tone has a significant effect on pulse oximeter measurements (hypothesis 1), images of skin tone can be used to calibrate pulse oximeter error (hypothesis 2), and SpO2 can be measured with a smartphone camera using the screen as a light source (hypothesis 3).
METHODS: Synthetic skin with the same optical properties as human skin was used in ex vivo experiments. A skin tone scale was placed in images for calibration and ground truth. To achieve a wide range of SpO2 for measurement, we reoxygenated sheep blood and pumped it through synthetic arteries. A custom optical system was connected from the smartphone screen (flashing red and blue) to the analyte and into the phone\'s camera for measurement.
RESULTS: The 3 skin tones were accurately classified according to the Fitzpatrick scale as types 2, 3, and 5. Classification was performed using the Euclidean distance between the measured red, green, and blue values. Traditional pulse oximeter measurements (n=2000) showed significant differences between skin tones in both alternating current and direct current measurements using ANOVA (direct current: F2,5997=3.1170 × 105, P<.01; alternating current: F2,5997=8.07 × 106, P<.01). Continuous SpO2 measurements (n=400; 10-second samples, 67 minutes total) from 95% to 75% were captured using OptoBeat in an ex vivo experiment. The accuracy was measured to be within 1% of the ground truth via quadratic support vector machine regression and 10-fold cross-validation (R2=0.97, root mean square error=0.7, mean square error=0.49, and mean absolute error=0.5). In the human-participant proof-of-concept experiment (N=3; samples=3 × N, duration=20-30 seconds per sample), SpO2 measurements were accurate to within 0.5% of the ground truth, and pulse rate measurements were accurate to within 1.7% of the ground truth.
CONCLUSIONS: In this work, we demonstrate that skin tone has a significant effect on SpO2 measurements and the design and evaluation of OptoBeat. The ultra-low-cost OptoBeat system enables smartphones to classify skin tone for calibration, reliably measure SpO2 as low as 75%, and normalize to avoid skin tone-based bias.