Upon oxidative stress, mammalian cells rapidly reprogram their translation. This is accompanied by the formation of stress granules (SGs), cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein condensates containing untranslated mRNA molecules, RNA-binding proteins, 40S ribosomal subunits, and a set of translation initiation factors. Here we show that arsenite-induced stress causes a dramatic increase in the stop-codon readthrough rate and significantly elevates translation reinitiation levels on uORF-containing and bicistronic mRNAs. We also report the recruitment of translation termination factors eRF1 and eRF3, as well as ribosome recycling and translation reinitiation factors ABCE1, eIF2D, MCT-1, and DENR to SGs upon arsenite treatment. Localization of these factors to SGs may contribute to a rapid resumption of mRNA translation after stress relief and SG disassembly. It may also suggest the presence of post-termination, recycling, or reinitiation complexes in SGs. This new layer of translational control under stress conditions, relying on the altered spatial distribution of translation factors between cellular compartments, is discussed.

The pathological mechanism underlying glaucoma has always been a complex aspect of this permanently blinding disease but proteomic studies have been helpful in elucidating it to a great extent in several studies. This study was designed to evaluate the expression and to get an idea about the function of two novel markers (ligatin and fibulin-7) identified in human aqueous humor (hAH) in relation to glaucomatous progression. A significant increase in the protein content of glaucomatous hAH compared to that of non-glaucomatous controls (NG-Ctrls) was observed. Ligatin, fibulin-7, and its proteolysis were revealed in hAH of primary open angle glaucoma (POAG), primary angle closure glaucoma (PACG) and NG-Ctrls. Quantification confirmed no significant difference in expression of ligatin, whereas fibulin-7 was significantly (P < 0.05) low in hAH of PACG in comparison to NG-Ctrls and POAG. Importantly the immunohistochemical assay for both indicated their possible involvement in the maintenance of the appropriate structure of TM in vivo. Since oxidative stress is a major contributor to glaucomatous pathogenesis, in vitro analysis of nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions indicated intracellular changes in localization and expression of ligatin upon oxidative insult of human trabecular meshwork (TM) cells. While no such changes were found for fibulin-7 expression. This was also corroborated with the immunocytochemical assay. Though a study with a small sample size, this is the first report which confirms the presence of ligatin and fibulin-7 in hAH, quantified their differential expression, and indicated the possibility of their involvement in the maintenance of the TM structure.

The recycling of ribosomal subunits after translation termination is critical for efficient gene expression. Tma64 (eIF2D), Tma20 (MCT-1), and Tma22 (DENR) function as 40S recycling factors in vitro, but it is unknown whether they perform this function in vivo. Ribosome profiling of tma deletion strains revealed 80S ribosomes queued behind the stop codon, consistent with a block in 40S recycling. We found that unrecycled ribosomes could reinitiate translation at AUG codons in the 3\' UTR, as evidenced by peaks in the footprint data and 3\' UTR reporter analysis. In vitro translation experiments using reporter mRNAs containing upstream open reading frames (uORFs) further established that reinitiation increased in the absence of these proteins. In some cases, 40S ribosomes appeared to rejoin with 60S subunits and undergo an 80S reinitiation process in 3\' UTRs. These results support a crucial role for Tma64, Tma20, and Tma22 in recycling 40S ribosomal subunits at stop codons and translation reinitiation.

After having translated short upstream open reading frames, ribosomes can re-initiate translation on the same mRNA. This process, referred to as re-initiation, controls the translation of a large fraction of mammalian cellular mRNAs, many of which are important in cancer. Key ribosomal binding proteins involved in re-initiation are the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2D (eIF2D) or the homologous complex of MCT-1/DENR. We determined the structures of these factors bound to the human 40S ribosomal subunit in complex with initiator tRNA positioned on an mRNA start codon in the P-site using a combination of cryoelectron microscopy and X-ray crystallography. The structures, supported by biochemical experiments, reveal how eIF2D emulates the function of several canonical translation initiation factors by using three independent, flexibly connected RNA binding domains to simultaneously monitor codon-anticodon interactions in the ribosomal P-site and position the initiator tRNA.