Dissection of bodies provided by donors continues to be utilized as a critical part of medical education. It also represents a rite of passage that socializes students to prepare them for the stress that comes with working in a clinical environment as a medical professional. Just as proper guidance in acquiring technical skills is critical in anatomy education, there is an important need for proper emotional guidance throughout the human dissection process. A pilot curriculum was developed by an interdisciplinary faculty team to emotionally prepare students for their first visit to the anatomy laboratory. Students were first-year foundation premedical students who had expressed an interest in visiting the laboratory. Pre- and post-visit surveys were conducted to explore students\' emotional responses to a first visit to the anatomy laboratory and their utilization of coping strategies. The survey findings show an overwhelming favorable feeling in anticipation of the human gross anatomy laboratory visit. About 20% of the students experienced anxiety at the anticipation of the laboratory visit, but only 5.3% experienced anxiety during the visit. The decrease in the number of students experiencing anxiety may be attributed to the interventions introduced before and during the visit. Talking with a close friend was the main coping strategy utilized by 63% of students experiencing fear or anxiety during and after the laboratory visit. The findings from this program evaluation provide a better understanding of student emotional preparedness and utilization of coping strategies, which may help prepare and guide future students for the dissection experience.

This case report explores the physical characteristics and clinical significance of the sternalis muscle, an uncommon anatomical variation of the anterior thoracic wall. If present, the sternalis muscle may distort diagnostic images and can be associated with incorrect interpretation of such medical images, misdiagnoses, and even surgical complications. As such, enhancing clinicians\' knowledge of this muscle and improving its recognition is of the utmost importance. In this case report, a rare bilateral sternalis muscle that was discovered during an educational human cadaveric dissection of a 73-year-old Black male is described. The right sternalis muscle fibres extended from the mid-sternal level to the right sternocostal arch, measuring 11.5 cm in length and 3.4 cm at its largest width. In contrast, the smaller left sternalis muscle fibres measured only 5.6 cm in length and 1.2 cm at its greatest width. This rare bilateral presentation of the sternalis muscle is documented in approximately one-third of all reported sternalis cases with an associated estimated prevalence as low as 1.7% among the general population. Serving as a reminder of the intricate anatomical complexities that continue to challenge and intrigue medical professionals, this report advocates for continued education of anatomical variations to enhance patient care and medical practices.

OBJECTIVE: This research aims to enhance understanding of the anatomy of the supraorbital nerve (SON) and greater occipital nerve (GON), focusing on their exit points, distal trajectories, and variability, utilizing a novel 3D representation.
METHODS: Ten cadaveric specimens underwent meticulous dissection, and 3D landmarks were registered. Models were generated from CT scans, and a custom 3D method was employed to visualize nerve trajectories. Measurements, including lengths and distances, were obtained for the SON and GON.
RESULTS: The SON exhibited varied exit points, with the lateral branches being the longest. The GON showed distinct branching patterns, which are described relative to various anatomical reference points and planes. No systematic left-right differences were observed for either nerve. 3D analysis revealed significant interindividual variability in nerve trajectories. The closest approximation between the SON and GON occurred between lateral branches.
CONCLUSIONS: The study introduces a novel 3D methodology for analyzing the SON and GON, highlighting considerable anatomical variation. Understanding this variability is crucial for clinical applications and tools targeting the skull innervation. The findings serve as a valuable reference for future research, emphasizing the necessity for personalized approaches in innervation-related interventions.

BACKGROUND: Anatomical sciences involve handling of human tissues and, therefore, application of principles of bioethics is central to anatomical practice. For a considerable period of time, anatomy was practiced without ethical norms as concept of ethics developed during second half of twentieth century. Hence, possible glimpse into contrast in ethical standards between anatomy in the past and present was deemed as an intriguing research theme.
METHODS: A literature search was undertaken from indexed databases (Medline and Pubmed, Scopus, Embase, CINAHL Plus, Web of Science and Google Scholar). Relevant data were extracted from 37 articles that were selected from an initial pool of 752 articles based on search criteria set for the study.
RESULTS: Prevalent anatomical practices in the past such as dissection of executed criminals, acts of vivisection, illegal procurement of human remains, use of human tissues obtained as part of war crimes and dissection of human fetuses as well as their archival were analyzed through prism of established ethical norms in present day. The observations from past were presented vis-à-vis ethical practices undertaken in present times such as use of donated bodies and/or body parts procured through legal means for dissection, adherence to ethical norms during dissection, archival of human tissues mandating stringent regulation and dignified disposal of human remains. Existing loop holes were identified and future prospects regarding ethical standards in anatomy were highlighted based on rational judgment of existing trends.
CONCLUSIONS: The article concludes with defense on future prospects of ethics in anatomy based on documented arguments.

Present day scenario regarding epistemological methods in anatomy is in sharp contrast to the situation during ancient period. This study aimed to explore the evolution of epistemological methodologies in anatomy across centuries. In ancient times Egyptian embalmers acquired anatomical knowledge from handling human bodies and likewise anatomical studies in India involved human dissection. Ancient Greeks used theological principles-based methods, animal dissection and human dissection in practice of anatomy. Human dissection was also practiced in ancient China for gaining anatomical knowledge. Prohibition of human dissection led to use of animal dissection in ancient Rome and the trend continued in Europe through Middle Ages. Epistemological methods used by Muslim scholars during Middle Ages are not clearly chronicled. Human dissection returned as primary epistemological method in Renaissance Europe and empirical methods were reinstated after ancient period in human dissection during 16th century. The situation further improved with introduction of pragmatic experiment based approach during 17th century and autopsy-based methods during 18th century. Advances in anatomical knowledge continued with advent of microscope-based methods and emergence of anatomical sections in practice of human dissection in 19th century. Introduction of human observational studies, medical imaging, and molecular methods presented more options in terms of epistemological methods for investigating the human body during 20th century. Onset of 21st century has witnessed dominance of technology-based methods in anatomy. Limited emphasis on ethics in epistemological methodologies since antiquity is a dark aspect of otherwise an eventful evolutionary journey but recent developments are in positive direction.

Over the last four millennia, the discipline of anatomy and its relationships with medicine and society have evolved dramatically. Human dissection, the perennial tool for anatomical discovery and education, has both guided this evolution and matured alongside it. Soon after the first cadaveric dissections recorded in ancient Greece, China, India, and Persia, clear endorsements of its practice fell largely silent in the anatomical record for 1,500 years before reappearing in Europe at the dawn of the Renaissance. Between the 13th and 18th centuries CE, the performance of anatomical dissection became a popular form of education and public entertainment, and the demand for human cadavers steadily increased among European anatomical schools while supply remained limited by legal statute. This gave rise to an informal group of amateur and professional body snatchers called the Resurrectionists and, later, inspired the Anatomy Act of 1832 CE. In the 20th and 21st centuries CE, voluntary body bequeathal programs have enabled the practice of human dissection to continue in academic centers as a cornerstone of anatomical education, now with a newfound focus on the development of affective skills. This article provides an abridged account of anatomy\'s development, highlighting key moments in its growth, the valuable contributions of many different societies to the discipline, and the important roles of several luminary anatomists of antiquity. Within the broader context of this history, it offers an overview of anatomical dissection\'s evocative past, spanning from its inception to its present-day practice.

BACKGROUND: In view of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, anatomy education programs were amended so as to shift to primarily online mode from physical classes. In the whole process, main concern area that has emerged is regarding dearth of physical human dissection sessions. There is enough evidence available in literature to suggest that dissection room is an ideal place to cultivate and inculcate discipline independent skills or humanistic skills among the students. These include attributes in relation to ethical practice, professionalism, communication skills, empathy and compassion. Imbibing these skills are an essential element of medical education curriculum as it is desirable that students exhibit these traits when they begin medical practice. Hence deficiency in terms of exposure to physical dissection sessions can adversely affect training of medical students on a long term.
METHODS: A literature search of relevant, peer-reviewed, published articles was undertaken from indexed databases (Medline and PubMed, Scopus, Embase, CINAHL Plus, Web of Science and Google Scholar) for this study.
RESULTS: To counter the pertinent issue in online anatomy teaching program, a few measures have been suggested in this paper based on identification of actual deficit areas in terms of learning and analysis thereof. Live streaming of real time dissection, awareness sessions on human dissection, online interactive learning sessions and reflective thoughts-based exercise can contribute to building discipline independent skills in present scenario.
CONCLUSIONS: Incorporation and implementation of these interventions within the realm of online anatomy education programs during COVID-19 pandemic can possibly contribute towards desirable learning outcomes.

The most distant roots of neuroanatomy trace back to antiquity, with the first human dissections, but no document which would identify the thalamus as a brain structure has reached us. Claudius Galenus (Galen) gave to the thalamus the name \'thalamus nervorum opticorum\', but later on, other names were used (e.g., anchae, or buttocks-like). In 1543, Andreas Vesalius provided the first quality illustrations of the thalamus. During the 19th century, tissue staining techniques and ablative studies contributed to the breakdown of the thalamus into subregions and nuclei. The next step was taken using radiomarkers to identify connections in the absence of lesions. Anterograde and retrograde tracing methods arose in the late 1960s, supporting extension, revision, or confirmation of previously established knowledge. The use of the first viral tracers introduced a new methodological breakthrough in the mid-1970s. Another important step was supported by advances in neuroimaging of the thalamus in the 21th century. The current review follows the history of the thalamus through these technical revolutions from Antiquity to the present day.

The commencement of human dissections in Japan during the Edo period is often depicted as the individual achievement of Yamawaki Tōyō. In 1754, this renowned scholar of the \"School of Ancient Prescriptions, \" feeling unable to resolve discrepancies in the Chinese classical literature, succeeded in obtaining permission for a dissection and was allocated a corpse at the execution place in Kyoto. However, a closer look at this issue reveals that the paradigm change to gaining knowledge through anatomical studies did not occur suddenly after centuries of stagnation. Beginning with the arrival of western medicine in the mid-17th century, this paper demonstrates how foreign and indigenous medical, social, political and religious stimuli gradually led to a new attitude toward human dissections and a rising awareness of the merits of anatomical observations. Decades before Yamawaki counted the number of human viscera, an ophthalmologist had discovered the faculty of the eye as a means for new insights and bone-setters had begun to revise textual knowledge by observing and manipulating the skeletons of rotting corpses. Yamawaki\'s accomplishment does not lie in the nature of his dissection or the (quickly outdated) results, but in the sheer fact that he carried out the dissection with the permission of the shogunal authorities and managed to publish his findings. Furthermore, among those physicians who quickly followed his example, we find Kawaguchi Shinnin, whose intellectual and mental breakthrough has not been recognized sufficiently yet. In Kawaguchi\'s case, there was no searching through the classical literature, no detached reflection and no awe resulting from the knife and the body fluids. The dissection that he conducted in 1770 was an unemotional \"clinical\" search for new insights by measuring sizes, determining positions, colors and consistencies, and by manipulating and investigating. The paper finishes with a comparison of the basic traits of anatomical illustrations in Japan and Europe.
日本\"古方学派\"著名学者山胁东洋(1706—1762)发现中国古代医学典籍中关于身体结构的描述存在差异，于1754年在京都进行了一次尸体解剖，这次解剖被认为是日本解剖学发展的开端，通常被描述为山胁东洋个人的成就。然而，仔细梳理史料却可以发现，日本对解剖的兴趣并不是在此时突然出现，而是伴随着17世纪中期西方医学的到来而开始。笔者论证了外国和本土的医学、社会、政治及宗教因素如何逐渐激发日本人对尸体产生新认识，并使他们更好地认识到解剖观察的价值。早在山胁东洋解剖人体之前的几十年，一位眼科医生就发现了眼睛的功能，他通过观察腐尸绘制了骨骼连接图，并将这种观察方法作为获取新知识的手段。山胁东洋的成就不在于他获得的解剖结果，而在于他的解剖获得了政府允许，成果付诸出版，为后来的解剖者开创了先河。在山胁东洋的效仿者中，河口信任的突破性成就迄今尚未得到足够的认可。1770年，河口信任进行了一次解剖，他既没有参阅古籍，也没有因为刀和体液的刺激引发超然的联想和敬畏之心，而是通过测量大小、确定位置、观察颜色等\"临床\"研究方法，进行了一次旨在获得新知的冷静而大胆的尝试。文章最后对日本和欧洲解剖插图的基本特征进行了比较。.

The anatomical textbook in the late Middle Ages was one part of a greater pedagogical process that involved students\' seeing, hearing, reading, and eventually knowing information about the human body. By examining the role of the anatomical textbook and accompanying bodily images in anatomical learning, this article illuminates the complexity and self-consciousness of anatomical education in the medieval university, as professors focused on ways to enhance student memory of the material. Traditionally, the history of anatomy has been heavily influenced by the anatomical Renaissance of the late-sixteenth century, highlighting a focus on innovative medical knowledge and the scientific method. However, if we engage a pedagogical lens when looking at these medieval authors, it becomes quickly obvious that the whole point of university medicine was not to explore unknown boundaries and discover new ideas of medicine, but rather to communicate the current and established body of knowledge to those not familiar with it.