The modular organization of tetrapod paired limbs and girdles, influenced by the expression of Hox genes is one of the primary driving forces of the evolution of animal locomotion. The increased morphological diversification of the paired limbs is correlated with reduced between-limb covariation, while correlation within the elements is usually higher than between the elements. The tailed amphibians, such as Lissotriton newts, have a biphasic lifestyle with aquatic and terrestrial environments imposing different constraints on limb skeleton. By employing the methods of computerized microtomography and 3D geometric morphometrics, we explored the pattern of morphological variation, disparity, modularity and morphological integration in the proximal parts of the anterior limbs of six species of Eurasian small bodied newts. Although the species significantly differ in limb shape, there is a great overlap in morphology of scapula and humerus, and there are no differences in morphological disparity. For the scapula, the shape differences related to the duration of the aquatic period are in length, depth and curvature. The shape of the humerus is not affected by the length of aquatic period, and shape differences between the species are related to robustness of the body. The length of aquatic period has statistically supported phylogenetic signal. The scapula and humerus are structures of varying modularity. For the humerus, the strongest support on the phylogenetic level was for the capitulum/shaft hypothesis, which can also be interpreted as functional modularity. For the scapula, the greatest support was for the antero-posterior hypothesis of modularity in case of Lissotriton vulgaris, which can be explained by different functional roles and muscle insertion patterns, while there was no phylogenetic modularity. The modularity patterns seem to correspond with the general tetrapod pattern, with modularity being more pronounced in the distal structure. The future research should include more salamandrid taxa with different habitat preferences and both adult and larval stages, in order to explore how size, phylogeny and ecology affect the morphology and covariation patterns of limbs.

In tetrapods, the scapular and pelvic girdles perform the important function of anchoring the limbs to the trunk of the body and facilitating the movement of each appendage. This shared function, however, is one of relatively few similarities between the scapula and pelvis, which have significantly different morphologies, evolutionary histories, embryonic origins, and underlying genetic pathways. The scapula evolved in jawless fish prior to the pelvis, and its embryonic development is unique among bones in that it is derived from multiple progenitor cell populations, including the dermomyotome, somatopleure, and neural crest. Conversely, the pelvis evolved several million years later in jawed fish, and it develops from an embryonic somatopleuric cell population. The genetic networks controlling the formation of the pelvis and scapula also share similarities and differences, with a number of genes shaping only one or the other, while other gene products such as PBX transcription factors act as hierarchical developmental regulators of both girdle structures. Here, we provide a detailed review of the cellular processes and genetic networks underlying pelvis and scapula formation in tetrapods, while also highlighting unanswered questions about girdle evolution and development.

The fish-to-tetrapod transition is one of the fundamental problems in evolutionary biology. A significant amount of paleontological data has revealed the morphological trajectories of skeletons, such as those of the skull, vertebrae, and appendages in vertebrate history. Shifts in bone differentiation, from dermal to endochondral bones, are key to explaining skeletal transformations during the transition from water to land. However, the genetic underpinnings underlying the evolution of dermal and endochondral bones are largely missing. Recent genetic approaches utilizing model organisms-zebrafish, frogs, chickens, and mice-reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying vertebrate skeletal development and provide new insights for how the skeletal system has evolved. Currently, our experimental horizons to test evolutionary hypotheses are being expanded to non-model organisms with state-of-the-art techniques in molecular biology and imaging. An integration of functional genomics, developmental genetics, and high-resolution CT scanning into evolutionary inquiries allows us to reevaluate our understanding of old specimens. Here, we summarize the current perspectives in genetic programs underlying the development and evolution of the dermal skull roof, shoulder girdle, and appendages. The ratio shifts of dermal and endochondral bones, and its underlying mechanisms, during the fish-to-tetrapod transition are particularly emphasized. Recent studies have suggested the novel cell origins of dermal bones, and the interchangeability between dermal and endochondral bones, obscuring the ontogenetic distinction of these two types of bones. Assimilation of ontogenetic knowledge of dermal and endochondral bones from different structures demands revisions of the prevalent consensus in the evolutionary mechanisms of vertebrate skeletal shifts.

Physical and hormonal changes during pregnancy are thought to affect balance and injury risk, with increased numbers of falls being reported. A maternity support belt (MSB) has been suggested to stabilize the pelvis and to enhance balance. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate the effect of an MSB on postural stability in different trimesters of pregnancy.
Postural stability was assessed in the first (T1, n = 30), second (T2, n = 30) and third trimester (T3, n = 30) of pregnancy and compared to non-pregnant controls (n = 30), using a portable force plate. Postural sway during quiescent standing with and without applying an MSB was characterized by analyzing path length, velocity, amplitudes and area. Subsequently, anterior and posterior limits of stability (LoS) were determined.
Postural sway during quiescent standing did not change with pregnancy. However, LoS performance was reduced already in T1, before body mass significantly increased. The MSB led to a small improvement in the LoS while slightly increasing postural sway in anterior-posterior direction and shifting the center of pressure posteriorly during quiescent standing.
While impairments in balance already occurred early in pregnancy before body mass significantly increased, they were subtle and only measurable in exacerbated conditions. This challenges the assumed necessity of balance enhancing interventions in pregnant women. Although the MSB significantly affected body posture, the magnitude of the LoS improvement using the MSB was very small. Thus, it remains debatable if the MSB is a meaningful tool to increase balance during pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Abdominal girdles are used to prevent hernia and to facilitate the in-growth of mesh following ventral hernia surgery or instead of surgery. Scientific evidence supporting the use of girdle, including patient experience, is lacking. The aim was to investigate patient experience of wearing an elastic girdle in terms of support and tolerability.
METHODS: A trans-sectional study with quantitative onset was performed. Telephone interviews following a strict protocol were performed 2 years after girdle prescription. Of the 89 eligible patients, 67 completed the interview. The questionnaire constituted 13 questions.
RESULTS: Of the 52 women and 15 men, two thirds had ventral hernia surgery. Patients over 70 years more often used girdle as a substitute for surgery. Most patients (64%) were satisfied with the girdle and 94% used it as prescribed. Five out of 53 who used girdles preoperatively stated no improvement in their inconvenience. Almost all patients (97%) had some problem with the girdle.
CONCLUSIONS: In this first study on patient experience, nearly all patients used it as prescribed and subjective benefit was achieved even though side effects were present in most cases. Individual fitting and improved information about when and how to use the girdle is important for patient comfort and optimal function. This study attended patient experience of negative side effects from wearing a girdle. Improvement may be reached concerning comfort from the patients\' perspective. The importance of both written and oral information has been revealed.

Semicircular lipoatrophy is characterized by one or more partial, horizontal, band-like depressions, usually on the anterolateral thigh or thighs. We report the case of a 47-year-old woman who presented with a 1-month history of bilateral, parallel, symmetrical depressions on the anterolateral aspects of her thighs. She had been wearing a tight girdle, and the girdle\'s folds matched the cutaneous bands. Ultrasound examination of the affected areas showed that the muscle tensor fasciae latae became its tendon at this level, and the muscle rectus femoris originated at the same level in the deeper layer. Although semicircular lipoatrophy has a predisposition for the anterolateral aspect of the thigh, and has often been considered to be caused by repetitive mild trauma to the site, we speculate that it is also attributed to the vulnerability of the site, as explained by the muscle structure.

Carbon transport processes in plants can be followed non-invasively by repeated application of the short-lived positron-emitting radioisotope (11)C, a technique which has rarely been used with trees. Recently, positron emission tomography (PET) allowing 3D visualization has been adapted for use with plants. To investigate the effects of stem girdling on the flow of assimilates, leaves on first order branches of two-year-old oak (Quercus robur L.) trees were labeled with (11)C by supplying (11)CO2-gas to a leaf cuvette. Magnetic resonance imaging gave an indication of the plant structure, while PET registered the tracer flow in a stem region downstream from the labeled branches. After repeated pulse labeling, phloem translocation was shown to be sectorial in the stem: leaf orthostichy determined the position of the phloem sieve tubes containing labeled (11)C. The observed pathway remained unchanged for days. Tracer time-series derived from each pulse and analysed with a mechanistic model showed for two adjacent heights in the stem a similar velocity but different loss of recent assimilates. With either complete or partial girdling of bark within the monitored region, transport immediately stopped and then resumed in a new location in the stem cross-section, demonstrating the plasticity of sectoriality. One day after partial girdling, the loss of tracer along the interrupted transport pathway increased, while the velocity was enhanced in a non-girdled sector for several days. These findings suggest that lateral sugar transport was enhanced after wounding by a change in the lateral sugar transport path and the axial transport resumed with the development of new conductive tissue.