The route of administration of implanted cells may affect the outcome of cell therapy by directing cell migration to the damaged site. However, the question of the relationship between the route of administration, the efficacy of colonisation of a given organ, and the efficacy of cell therapy has not been resolved. The aim of the study was to localise transplanted intravenously and intraperitoneally human amniotic epithelial cells (hAECs) in the tissues of mice, both healthy and injured, in an animal experimental model of acute liver failure (ALF). Mice intoxicated with D-Galactosamine (D-GalN) at a dose of 150 mg/100 g body weight received D-GalN alone or with a single dose of hAECs administered by different routes. Subsequently, at 6, 24, and 72 h after D-GaIN administration and at 3, 21, and 69 h after hAEC administration, lungs, spleen, liver, and blood were collected from recipient mice. The degree of liver damage and regeneration was assessed based on biochemical blood parameters, histopathological evaluation (H&E staining), and immunodetection of proliferating (Ki67+) and apoptotic (Casp+) cells. The biodistribution of the administered cells was based on immunohistochemistry and the identification of human DNA. It has been shown that after intravenous administration, in both healthy and intoxicated mice, most of the transplanted hAECs were found in the lungs, while after intraperitoneal administration, they were found in the liver. We concluded that a large number of hAECs implanted in the lungs following intravenous administration can exert a therapeutic effect on the damaged liver, while the regenerative effect of intraperitoneally injected hAECs on the liver was very limited due to the relatively lower efficiency of cell engraftment.

In humans, chronic liver disease (CLD) is a serious clinical condition with many life-threatening complications. Currently, there is no therapy to stop or slow down the progression of liver fibrosis. Experimental mouse models of CLD, induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) and D-galactosamine (D-GalN), can be used to evaluate therapies that cannot be performed in humans. A major drawback of these animal models is the different dynamics of liver fibrosis progression depending on the animal strain, administered hepatotoxin, its dose, duration of intoxication, and frequency of injections. The aim of this study was to describe and compare the dynamics of progression of pathological changes in the BALB/c mouse and Sprague Dawley rat models of CLD induced by CCl4 and D-GalN. We defined the onset and duration of these changes and suggested the optimal time for therapeutic intervention in the analyzed CLD models.
CLD was induced by repeated intraperitoneal injection of CCl4 in mice (12.5 μL/100 g bw every 5 days) and rats (25-100 μL/100 g bw twice a week) and D-GalN in mice (75 mg/100 g bw twice a week) and rats (25 mg/100 g bw twice a week). Blood and liver samples were collected at weeks 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 of intoxication. Liver injury and its progression were assessed by using complete blood count and liver function blood tests as well as by analyzing histopathological changes, including fibrosis, proliferation activity, apoptosis, stellate cell activation, and gene expression.
In mice and rats treated with CCl4, early fibrosis was observed in most pericentral areas from week 2 to 4 of intoxication. Established fibrosis developed in both rats and mice at week 6 of intoxication. Incomplete cirrhosis, defined as the presence of occasional cirrhotic nodules, was observed in rats at week 12 of intoxication. The dynamics of liver fibrosis in CCl4-treated animals were greater than in the D-GalN groups. In D-GalN-intoxicated rats and mice, the first signs of liver fibrosis were observed at weeks 4 and 10 of intoxication, respectively. The rats developed early fibrosis after 8 weeks of D-GalN intoxication. The progression of collagen deposition was accompanied by histological changes and alteration of certain genes and blood liver parameters.
The dynamics of liver fibrosis in CCl4 treated rodents is greater than in the D-GalN treated ones. In the CCl4 models, two appropriate times for therapeutic intervention are indicated, which to varying degrees reflect the real clinical situation and may potentially differ in the obtained results: early intervention before week 4 of intoxication (early fibrosis) and late intervention after week 8 of intoxication (when signs of established fibrosis are present). Rodent models of D-GalN-induced fibrosis are not recommended due to the long incubation period and weak toxic effect.

OBJECTIVE: Experimental models using carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and D-galactosamine (D-GalN) can be used in preclinical assessment of acute liver failure (ALF) therapies. Unfortunately, these models are characterized by different dynamics of liver injury depending on the animal strain, administered hepatotoxin, and its dose. The aim of this study was to compare known rat and mouse models of ALF with a view to their future introduction into preclinical cell therapy experiments. In particular, based on histopathological and molecular changes, we suggested experimental time cut-off points for an effective stem cell therapeutic intervention.
METHODS: ALF was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of CCl4 in mice (50 μL/100 g b.w.) and rats (200 μL/100 g b.w.) and D-GalN in mice (150 mg/100 g b.w.) and rats (50 mg/100 g b.w.). Blood and liver samples were collected 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 7 days after intoxication. Blood morphology, liver function blood tests, histopathological changes, proliferation activity, apoptosis, fibrosis, and gene expression were analysed to assess liver damage.
RESULTS: At 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h after CCl4 injection, mouse livers showed moderate inflammatory infiltration and massive pericentral necrosis. In rats treated with CCl4, minor lymphocytic infiltration in the liver parenchyma was seen at 12 h, followed by necrosis that appeared around central veins at 24 h and persisted to 48 h. In D-GalN-injected mice, the first histopathological signs of liver injury appeared at 48 h. In the livers of D-GalN-treated rats, moderate pericentral inflammatory infiltration occurred after 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h, accompanied by increased proliferation and apoptosis. All histological changes were accompanied by decreasing expression of certain genes. In most experimental groups of rats and mice, both histological and molecular parameters returned to the baseline values between 48 h and 7 days after intoxication.
CONCLUSIONS: In mice and rats with CCl4-induced ALF, signs of liver failure can be seen as early as 12 h and develop to 48 h. In the D-GalN-induced model, mice are more resistant to the hepatotoxic effect than rats (after 12 h), and the early hepatitis phase can be observed much later, after 48 h. These cut-off points seem to be optimal for suppressing inflammation and applying effective stem cell therapy for acute liver injury.

Preclinical animal models allow to study development and progression of several diseases, including liver disorders. These studies, for ethical reasons and medical limits, are impossible to carry out in human patients. At the same time, such experimental models constitute an important source of knowledge on pathomechanisms for drug- and virus-induced hepatotoxicity, both acute and chronic. Carbon tetrachloride, D-Galactosamine, and retrorsine are xenobiotics that can be used in immunocompetent animal models of hepatotoxicity, where chemical-intoxicated livers present histological features representative of human viruses-related infection. A prolonged derangement into liver architecture and functions commonly lead to cirrhosis, eventually resulting in hepatocellular carcinoma. In human, orthotopic liver transplantation commonly resolve most the problems related to cirrhosis. However, the shortage of donors does not allow all the patients in the waiting list to receive an organ on time. A promising alternative treatment for acute and chronic liver disease has been advised in liver cell transplantation, but the limited availability of hepatocytes for clinical approaches, in addition to the immunosuppressant regiment required to sustain cellular long-term engraftment have been encouraging the use of alternative cell sources. A recent effective source of stem cells have been recently identified in the human amnion membrane. Human amnion epithelial cells (hAEC) have been preclinically tested and proven sufficient to rescue immunocompetent rodents lethally intoxicated with drugs. The adoption of therapeutic procedures based on hAEC transplant in immunocompetent recipients affected by liver diseases, as well as patients with immune-related disorders, may constitute a successful new alternative therapy in regenerative medicine.