Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is a durable, flexible, and dynamic biomaterial capable of serving a wide variety of fields, sectors, and applications within biotechnology, healthcare, electronics, agriculture, fashion, and others. BNC is produced spontaneously in carbohydrate-rich bacterial culture media, forming a cellulosic pellicle via a nanonetwork of fibrils extruded from certain genera. Herein, we demonstrate engineering BNC-based scaffolds with tunable physical and mechanical properties through postprocessing. Human skeletal muscle myoblasts (HSMMs) were cultured on these scaffolds, and in vitro electrical stimulation was applied to promote cellular function for tissue engineering applications. We compared physiologic maturation markers of human skeletal muscle myoblast development using a 2.5-dimensional culture paradigm in fabricated BNC scaffolds, compared to two-dimensional (2D) controls. We demonstrate that the culture of human skeletal muscle myoblasts on BNC scaffolds developed under electrical stimulation produced highly aligned, physiologic morphology of human skeletal muscle myofibers compared to unstimulated BNC and standard 2D culture. Furthermore, we compared an array of metrics to assess the BNC scaffold in a rigorous head-to-head study with commercially available, clinically approved matrices, Kerecis Omega3 Wound Matrix (Marigen) and Phoenix as well as a gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel. The BNC scaffold outcompeted industry standard matrices as well as a 20% GelMA hydrogel in durability and sustained the support of human skeletal muscle myoblasts in vitro. This work offers a robust demonstration of BNC scaffold cytocompatibility with human skeletal muscle cells and sets the basis for future work in healthcare, bioengineering, and medical implant technological development.

Starch-based pH-sensing films with bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) and red cabbage anthocyanins (RCA) as active components were investigated in this research. Their structural, physical, surface and colorimetric properties were analyzed, mainly as a function of BNC concentration. The aim of the research was to relate the changes in the intermolecular interactions between the components of the films (starch, anthocyanins and BNC) to the physical, surface and colorimetric properties that are important for the primary intended application of the produced films as pH indicators in smart packaging. The results showed that maize starch (MS) was more suitable as a matrix for the stabilization of anthocyanins compared to potato starch (PS). PS-based films showed a lower value of water contact angle than MS-based films, indicating stronger hydrophilicity. The swelling behavior results indicate that the concentrations of BNC in MS-based films (cca 10%) and the concentration of about 50% BNC in PS-based films are required if satisfactory properties of the indicator in terms of stability in a wet environment are to be achieved. The surface free energy results of PS-based films with BNC were between 62 and 68 mJ/m2 and with BNC and RCA between 64 and 68 mJ/m2; for MS-based films, the value was about 65 mJ/m2 for all samples with BNC and about 68 mJ/m2 for all samples with BNC and RCA. The visual color changes after immersion in different buffer solutions (pH 2.0-10.5) showed a gradual transition from red/pink to purple, blue and green for the observed samples. Films immersed in different buffers showed lower values of 2 to 10 lightness points (CIE L*) for PS-based films and 10 to 30 lightness points for MS-based films after the addition of BNC. The results of this research can make an important contribution to defining the influence of intermolecular interactions and structural changes on the physical, surface and colorimetric properties of bio-based pH indicators used in smart packaging applications.

The present study aimed to create a more sustainable and controlled delivery system based on natural biopolymer bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) and bacterial natural product actinomycin (Act), with the applicative potential in the biomedical field. In order to provide improved interaction between BNC and the active compound, and thus to modulate the release kinetics, the TEMPO oxidation of BNC support was carried out. A mix of actinomycins from bacterial fermentation (ActX) were used as natural antimicrobial agents with an established bioactivity profile and clinical use. BNC and TEMPO-oxidized BNC films with incorporated active compounds were obtained and analyzed by FTIR, SEM, XPS, and XRD. The ActX release profiles were determined in phosphate-buffer solution, PBS, at 37 °C over time. FTIR analysis confirmed the improved incorporation and efficiency of ActX adsorption on oxidized BNC due to the availability of more active sites provided by oxidation. SEM analysis indicated the incorporation of ActX into the less-dense morphology of the TEMPO-oxidized BNC in comparison to pure BNC. The release kinetics of ActX were significantly affected by the BNC structure, and the activated BNC sample indicated the sustained release of active compounds over time, corresponding to the Fickian diffusion mechanism. Antimicrobial tests using Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 6571 confirmed the potency of this BNC-based system for biomedical applications, taking advantage of the capacity of modified BNC to control and modulate the release of bioactive compounds.

Synthetic materials alternatives are crucial for reaching sustainable development goals and waste reduction. Biomaterials and biomolecules obtained through bacterial fermentation offer a viable solution. Double-layer active UV-blocking material composed of bacterial nanocellulose as an inner layer and poly(hydroxyoctanoic acid) containing prodigiosin as an active compound was produced by layer-by-layer deposition. This study referred the new material consisted of the three components produced in sustainable manner, by bacterial activity: bacterial bio-pigment prodigiosin, bacterial nanocellulose and poly(hydroytoctanoate) - biopolymer obtained by microbial fermentations. Prior the final double layer film was produced, PHO films containing different PG concentrations as a layer in charge of the bioactivity (0.2, 0.5 and 1 wt%) was casted and systematically characterized (FTIR, DSC, XRD, wettability, SEM, transparency, mechanical tests) to optimize their properties. The formulation with the best UV-blocking properties and less toxicity effect tested using MRC5 cells was chosen as an outer layer in double-layer films production. Water contact angle measurements confirmed that hydrophilic - hydrophobic double layer film was obtained with the improved mechanical properties in comparison to the native BNC. Migration test indicated release of PG in all tested media as a consequence of bilayer formulation, while the PG release from PHO in 10 % ethanol was not detected. All findings from the study suggested this activated, UV-blocking material as a candidate with excellent potential in packaging industry.

Nanocellulose, a versatile and sustainable nanomaterial derived from cellulose fibers, has attracted considerable attention in various fields due to its unique properties. Similar to dietary fibers, nanocellulose is difficult to digest in the human gastrointestinal tract. The indigestible nanocellulose is fermented by gut microbiota, producing metabolites and potentially exhibiting prebiotic activity in intestinal diseases. Additionally, nanocellulose can serve as a matrix material for probiotic protection and show promising prospects for probiotic delivery. In this review, we summarize the classification of nanocellulose, including cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), cellulose nanofibers (CNF), and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), highlighting their distinct characteristics and applications. We discuss the metabolism-related characteristics of nanocellulose from oral ingestion to colon fermentation and introduce the prebiotic activity of nanocellulose in intestinal diseases. Furthermore, we provide an overview of commonly used nanocellulose-based encapsulation techniques, such as emulsification, extrusion, freeze drying, and spray drying, as well as the delivery systems employing nanocellulose matrix materials, including microcapsules, emulsions, and hydrogels. Finally, we discuss the challenges associated with nanocellulose metabolism, prebiotic functionality, encapsulation techniques, and delivery systems using nanocellulose matrix material for probiotics. This review will provide new insight into the application of nanocellulose in the treatment of intestinal diseases and probiotic delivery.

The hydrothermal pretreatment process stands out as a pivotal step in breaking down the hemicellulosic fraction of lignocellulosic biomasses, such as sugarcane bagasse and eucalyptus sawdust. This pretreatment step is crucial for preparing these materials for subsequent processes, particularly in food applications. This technique aims to disintegrate plant wall components like cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and facilitating access in later phases such as enzymatic hydrolysis, and ultimately making fermentable sugars available. In this study, sugarcane bagasse and eucalyptus sawdust biomass underwent hydrothermal pretreatment at specific conditions, yielding two key components: dry biomass and hemicellulose liquor. The primary focus was to assess the impact of hydrothermal pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis, using the Celic Ctec III enzyme cocktail, to obtain fermentable sugars. These sugars were then transformed into membranes via strain Gluconacetobacter xylinus bacterial biosynthesis. Notably, the addition of a nitrogen source significantly boosted production to 14.76 g/ in hydrolyzed sugarcane bagasse, underscoring its vital role in bacterial metabolism. Conversely, in hydrolyzed eucalyptus, nitrogen source inclusion unexpectedly decreased yield, highlighting the intricate interactions in fermentation media and the pivotal influence of nitrogen supplementation. Characterization of membranes obtained in synthetic and hydrolyzed media through techniques such as FEG-SEM, FTIR, and TGA, followed by mass balance assessment, gauged their viability on an industrial scale. This comprehensive study aimed not only to understand the effects of pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis but to also evaluate the applicability and sustainability of the process on a large scale, providing crucial insights into its feasibility and efficiency in practical food-related scenarios, utilizing nanocellulose bacterial (BNC) as a key component.

A novel smart film MP/BNC/ACN for real-time monitoring of fish freshness was developed using myofibrillar protein (MP) and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) as film raw materials and anthocyanin (Lycium ruthenicum, ACN) as an indicator. Firstly, the film containing 1 % ACN (MP/BNC/ACN1) was found to have a moderate thickness (0.44 ± 0.01 mm) and superior mechanical properties (tensile strength (TS) = 8.53 ± 0.11 MPa; elongation at break (EB) = 24.85 ± 1.38 %) by determining the physical structure. The covalent, electrostatic, and hydrogen bonding interactions between anthocyanin and the film matrix were identified and confirmed by FT-IR spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis. A comprehensive evaluation concluded that MP/BNC/ACN1 exhibited excellent trimethylamine (TMA) sensitivity (total color difference (ΔE), ΔETMA0-1000 = 4.47-31.05; limit of detection (LOD), LOD = 1.03) and UV stability (ΔE96h = 4.16 ± 0.13). The performance of the films in assessing fish freshness was evaluated, principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) revealed that MP/BNC/ACN1 (ΔE2-10d = 16.84-32.05) could clearly distinguish between fresh (0-2 d), sub-fresh (4-6 d), and spoiled (8-10 d) stages of fish, which corresponded to the film colors of red, light red, and gray-black. In conclusion, this study addresses the limitation that intelligent films cannot visually discern real-time freshness during fish storage and provides a promising approach for real-time fish freshness monitoring.

For Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) production, standard methods are well-established, but there is a pressing need to explore cost-effective alternatives for BNC commercialization. This study investigates the feasibility of using syrup prepared from maize stalk as a valuable nutrient and sustainable carbon source for BNC production. Our study achieved a remarkable BNC production yield of 19.457 g L-1 by utilizing Komagataeibacter saccharivorans NUWB1 in combination with components from the Hestrin-Schramm (HS) medium. Physicochemical properties revealed that the obtained BNC exhibited a crystallinity index of 60.5 %, tensile strength of 43.5 MPa along with enhanced thermostability reaching up to 360 °C. N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm of the BNC displayed characteristics of type IV, indicating the presence of a mesoporous structure. The produced BNC underwent thorough investigation, focusing on its efficacy in addressing environmental concerns, particularly in removing emerging pharmaceutical pollutants like Metformin and Paracetamol. Remarkably, the BNC exhibited strong adsorption capabilities, aligning with the Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order model. Thermodynamic analysis confirmed a spontaneous and endothermic adsorption process. Furthermore, the BNC showed potential for regeneration, enabling up to five recycling cycles. Cytotoxicity and oxidative stress assays validated the biocompatibility of BNC. Lastly, the BNC films displayed an impressive 88.73 % biodegradation within 21 days.

Bacterial nanocellulose was produced here using static, static intermittent-fed batch (SIFB) and rotary disc bioreactor (RDB) mode. Economical black tea broth media with symbiotic consortia of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) was used towards feasible BNC production (instead of commercial NCIM 2526 strain and conventional HS media). The physicochemical characterization of BNC produced in all three modes via FE-SEM, ATR-FTIR, XRD and TGA results showed a highly porous morphology, mostly Iα form, good crystallinity and thermal stability, respectively. BNC crystallinity lies in the range of 68 % (RDB) to 79.4 % (static and SIFB). Water retention value (86 to 93 %) and moisture content (85 to 93 %) are high for BNC produced in all three modes. Commendable difference in the BNC yield, sugar consumption, conversion yield and residual sugar was observed using different methods. Highest BNC yield 29.4 ± 0.66 gL-1 was obtained under SIFB method as compared to static mode (13.6 ± 0.32 g L-1). Under RDB, a negligible amount of BNC i.e., 1.0 ± 0.2 g L-1 was produced. SCOBY with BTB medium was found unsuitable for BNC production under RDB and needs further investigation. Thus, this comparative study offers a way to produce a commendable amount of low-priced BNC for various techno-industrial usage.

Biocompatibility, good mechanical properties, infection prevention, and anti-inflammatory are the requirements of an ideal wound dressing for the care and treatment of skin wounds. In this study, the nanohydrogels as wound dressing, were fabricated by bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and gellan gum. Bitter almond oil nanoemulsion (BAO-NE) was made with ultrasonic force and incorporated into the nanohydrogels in concentrations of 2, 4, and 6 %. The mechanical and physicochemical analyses such as tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (EB), swelling, water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), degradation, FTIR-ATR, and SEM, and anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, etc. properties of the nanohydrogels were investigated. Also, the wound healing ability was evaluated by in-vivo analyses. The molecular analyses of the expression of genes related to collagen production and inflammation were performed. Increasing BAO-NE concentration enhanced anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria (P < 0.05). The in-vivo study presented the healing role of nanohydrogels in rat wounds. Real-time PCR results confirmed the anti-inflammatory and healing effects of the films at molecular levels. All the results testify to the promising properties of the fabricated nanohydrogels as a potential wound dressing.