Original texts and expert translations from various ancient cultures covering a time span from the 2nd millennium BC to the ninth century AD were searched for historical observations of involuntary eye movements. Abnormal, spontaneous eye movements are an easily recognisable neuro-ophthalmological symptom that can be both congenital and acquired. Ocular oscillations termed \'hippos\' by Hippocrates (460-370BC) and Galenos (129-216AD) are synonymous with nystagmus, a term first introduced in the eighteenth century. The original description of hippos suggests an innate onset, which retrospectively can be related to either congenital (infantile) nystagmus or continuous involuntary eye movements of the blind. Other descriptions of abnormal involuntary eye movements with different beating directions, possibly associated with vertigo, seizures or ear symptoms and their impact on patients\' quality of life (e.g. oscillopsia, blurred vision) are preserved in many fragmentary ancient documents including papyrus scrolls and stone tablets from Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Greece, Rome and the Middle East. Although the sparse original descriptions of the direction and type of eye movements may inspire daring medical interpretations, caution is required when attempting to assign them to distinct nystagmus forms according to our current clinical classification of ocular motor disorders.

Hippocrates, a Greek physician during the fifth century BC., is often considered the father of medicine. The Corpus Hippocraticum comprising of 58 volumes was writing between 450 and 150 BC. The objective of our study was to detail the management of nasal polyps during this period. We read and analyzed all volumes of the Corpus Hippocraticum in French translation and extracted all passages dealing with nasal polyps (n = 6). Surgical procedures in the Corpus Hippocraticum are described in great detail. The first surgical strategy for the removal of nasal polyps was by mini-invasive nasal approach: the lopping method and the sponge method. We explain the two mini-invasive nasal approaches with drawings. The meticulously detailed observations of the corpus give us a precious insight into the early perception of diseases, their progression and early attempts of treatment.

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The aim of this study is to prove that at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC at the latest an independent gynaecological tradition was formed within the Greek art of healing, from which the later Classical Graeco-Roman medicine drew inspiration. In this paper, the archaeological (especially the terracotta figurines and models and scenes painted on vases) and literary (the economic records and poetry excerpts) sources for the development of gynaecology from the advanced phases of the 2nd millennium until 500 BC are presented. The preserved sources clearly indicate that the Greek medicine reached some positive achievements already before 500 BC. Already in that period it put emphasis on the gynaecological issues. The described sources well illustrate also the development of the religious and mythological ideas related to the gynaecological, or the gynaecological-obstetrical aspect of healing, represented by Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, which was worshiped in the Greek world already since the Bronze Age. The Ancient Greek medicine has got the important place in the history of the European and world medical science. In the frame of medicine of the period in question, it is possible to trace back to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC the specific healing-gynaecological tradition, with an emphasis on the obstetrics. In this tradition, a combination of rational, empirical and religious aspects was used. The terracotta models from the 9th-8th centuries BC point on the widely used practice of midwifery, too. Unfortunately, it is not possible to clearly discern if the midwifes existed already before 500 BC as a specific and independent medical occupation.

The most distant roots of neuroanatomy trace back to antiquity, with the first human dissections, but no document which would identify the thalamus as a brain structure has reached us. Claudius Galenus (Galen) gave to the thalamus the name \'thalamus nervorum opticorum\', but later on, other names were used (e.g., anchae, or buttocks-like). In 1543, Andreas Vesalius provided the first quality illustrations of the thalamus. During the 19th century, tissue staining techniques and ablative studies contributed to the breakdown of the thalamus into subregions and nuclei. The next step was taken using radiomarkers to identify connections in the absence of lesions. Anterograde and retrograde tracing methods arose in the late 1960s, supporting extension, revision, or confirmation of previously established knowledge. The use of the first viral tracers introduced a new methodological breakthrough in the mid-1970s. Another important step was supported by advances in neuroimaging of the thalamus in the 21th century. The current review follows the history of the thalamus through these technical revolutions from Antiquity to the present day.

The last century brought about more rapid new developments in the treatment of burns, which significantly lowered the mortality of burn injuries. However, burns were already treated in antiquity, where the threshold from spirituality to scientific medicine originated. The existing literature on burn treatment is very limited and there are many cross-references, some of them incorrect. The aim of this work by an interdisciplinary team of historians and physicians is to offer a more precise reproduction of the burn treatment of Greek and Roman antiquity using original texts in context and with a modern scientific background. There are many sources from ancient doctors on the subject of burn treatment, as well as the treatment of burned-out wounds and frostbite, which have not yet been mentioned. The literature research also showed an understanding of scientific contexts in ancient medicine, such as antiseptics or rheology. Interestingly, there was a change in burn medicine from everyday Greek medicine to Roman military medicine with other burn patterns. The care of patients using analgetics and the therapy of burn shock arose from the literature. The ancient world is considered to be the foundation of medicine, but it is believed to have been based mainly on shamanism rather than science. However, already more than two millennia ago, burns were correctly assessed and treated according to today\'s scientific standards and scientific relationships were recognized.

Equine dentistry has been practiced for almost 3000 years, making it one of the oldest areas of equine health care. Progress has been slow and mirrored changes seen in human medical care. Many horsemen practiced equine dentistry during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most of what was known then concentrated on sharp enamel points and abnormal dental occlusal wear. This changed slowly in the late twentieth century as research in equine dentistry increased. Today, veterinarians performing equine dentistry focus on detailed oral examination and base treatment for proper diagnosis of orthodontic, endodontic, periodontal, or other forms of dental disease.

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BACKGROUND: Although otolaryngology became a subspecialty only since the middle of the nineteenth century, many diseases of ENT system, their clinical symptoms, universality and potential seriousness have been described since over 3000 years ago. Texts of the medical school of Cos and its founder Hippocrates (460-370 BC) collected in the Corpus Hippocraticum also contain multiple case reports and treatments for ear diseases. The aim of this study is to analyse an extract of one of Hippocrates\' treatise, which apparently describes the first case of cholesteotoma.
METHODS: We analysed a case from Epidemic by Hippocrates (VII, V, 1-9) from its English translation.
RESULTS: Analysis of the description of symptoms allows us to diagnose a complicated cholesteatoma with facial palsy and neuro-meningitis manifestation.
CONCLUSIONS: The meticulously detailed observations of the corpus give us a precious insight into the early perception of diseases and their evolution. The study of its history is of high interest to the fields of medicine, especially otorhinolaryngology. It also highlights the diseases and the suffering the diseases have inflicted on mankind since antiquity.