The keratinocyte (KC) is the main functional and structural component of the epidermis, the most external layer of the skin that is highly specialized in defense against external agents, prevention of leakage of body fluids and retention of internal water within the cells. Altered epidermal barrier and aberrant KC differentiation are involved in the pathophysiology of several skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis (AD). AD is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by cutaneous and systemic immune dysregulation and skin microbiota dysbiosis. Nevertheless, the pathological mechanisms of this complex disease remain largely unknown. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the participation of the KC in different aspects of the AD. We provide an overview of the genetic predisposing and environmental factors, inflammatory molecules and signaling pathways of the KC that participate in the physiopathology of the AD. We also analyze the link among the KC, the microbiota and the inflammatory response underlying acute and chronic skin AD lesions.

Hymenoptera venom allergy significantly affects the quality of life. Due to the divergences in the results of the available test and clinical symptoms of patients, the current widely applied diagnostic methods are often insufficient to classify patients for venom immunotherapy (VIT). Therefore it is still needed to search for new, more precise, and accurate diagnostic methods. Hence, this research aimed to discover new biomarkers of Hymenoptera venom allergy in a group of inflammation factors using set of multi-marker Bioplex panel. The adoption of a novel methodology based on Luminex/xMAP enabled simultaneous determination of serum levels of 37 different inflammatory proteins in one experiment. The study involved 21 patients allergic to wasp and/or honey bee venom and 42 healthy participants. According to univariate and multivariate statistics, soluble CD30/tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 8 (sCD30/TNFRSF8), and the soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (sTNF-R1) may be considered as effective prognostic factors, their circulating levels were significantly decreased in the allergy group (p-value < 0.05; the Area Under the Curve (AUC) ~0.7; Variable Importance in Projection (VIP) scores >1.2). The obtained results shed new light on the allergic inflammatory response and may contribute to modification and improvement of the diagnostic and monitoring methods. Further, large-scale studies are still needed to explain mechanisms of action of studied compounds and to definitively prove their usefulness in clinical practice.

BACKGROUND: Hymenoptera venom allergy is one of the most frequent causes of anaphylaxis. In its most severe form, the reaction to wasp and honey bee stings may be life-threatening. Therefore, immediate and proper diagnosis of venom allergy and implementation of suitable therapy are extremely important. Broadening the knowledge on the mechanism of the allergic reaction may contribute to the improvement of both diagnostic and treatment methods. Thus, this study aimed to discover changes in protein expression in serum of patients allergic to Hymenoptera (wasp and honeybee) venom and to point out proteins and peptides involved in the allergic inflammation.
METHODS: Serum proteomic patterns typical to allergic patients and healthy volunteers were obtained with MALDI-TOF (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight) mass spectrometer. The spectra were processed, analyzed and compared using advanced bioinformatics tools. The discriminative peaks were subjected to identification with liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.
RESULTS: This methodology allowed for the identification of four features differentiating between allergy and control groups. They were: fibrinogen alpha chain, coagulation factor XIII chain A, complement C4-A, and inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H4. All of these proteins are involved in allergic inflammatory response.
CONCLUSIONS: Extending the knowledge of the Hymenoptera venom sensitization will contribute to the development of novel, sensitive and specific methods for quick and unambiguous allergy diagnosis. Understanding the basis of the allergy at the proteomic level will support the improvement of preventive and therapeutic measures.