Pyroptosis is a new type of pro-inflammatory programmed cell death identified over the last few years and has since attracted researchers\' attention. Current research demonstrates that pyroptosis\'s primary process is dependent on caspase-1 protein and gasdermin D protein and is accompanied by the release of inflammatory substances. However, the specific mechanisms and physiological or pathophysiological processes involved in pyroptosis are unclear. Presently, research on the occurrence, development, and treatment of various diseases associated with pyroptosis is of significant value. Pyroptosis has been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. For instance, numerous studies have revealed that pyroptosis is involved in the development and progression of atherosclerosis, and it is closely associated with pyroptosis of three essential cells (vascular endothelial cells, macrophages, and vascular smooth muscle cells) in atherosclerosis. The advancement of research on pyroptosis is anticipated to give insights into its application as a potential method for treating diseases. This article mainly reviews the relationship between pyroptosis and associated mechanisms factors that cause pyroptosis and the relationship between pyroptosis and various diseases, especially atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Vascular remodeling is an alteration in the structure of vessels in response to injury or hemodynamic changes. Disturbance of the structural and functional integrity of the endothelial cell layer can be observed in vascular remodeling associated with inflammation. Chemokines have been implicated in a wide range of diseases with prominent inflammatory components, and also in vascular remodeling. Among them, CC-chemokines are of great interest. They act through conventional CC-chemokine receptors (CCRs), widely expressed by leucocytes which are attracted to sites of chronic inflammation. However, many experimental data show that CCRs are expressed by vascular cells, suggesting a direct, leukocyte-independent effect on vascular remodeling.
OBJECTIVE: Here, we discuss the role of CC-chemokines in atherosclerosis, angiogenesis, restenosis and renal dysfunction through direct activation of endothelial cells, endothelial progenitors, vascular smooth muscle cells, platelets, erythrocytes, mesangial cells and fibroblasts.
RESULTS: The pathophysiological role of CC-chemokines has become more interesting since the discovery of the atypical chemokine receptor (ACKR) subfamily, that does not couple with G proteins and fails to transmit conventional intracellular signals. It has been demonstrated to be a chemokine scavenger or decoy receptor with a role in the regulation of acute inflammatory responses.
CONCLUSIONS: At the vascular level, ACKRs are expressed by endothelial cells and endothelial lymphatic cells that seem to regulate angio- and lymph-angiogenesis. Pleiotropic effects of CC-chemokines on vascular wall cells and leukocytes increase their importance in vascular remodeling and suggest new drugs to counteract vascular dysfunction.

Atherosclerosis remains a major cause of mortality. Whereas the histopathological progression of atherosclerotic lesions is well documented, much less is known about the development of unstable or vulnerable plaque, which can rupture leading to thrombus, luminal occlusion and infarct. Apoptosis in the fibrous cap, which is rich in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and macrophages, and its subsequent weakening or erosion seems to be an important regulator of plaque stability. The aim of our study was to improve our knowledge on the biological mechanisms that cause plaque instability in order to develop new therapies to maintain atherosclerotic plaque stability and avoid its rupture. In our study, we collected surgical specimens from atherosclerotic plaques in the right or left internal carotid artery of 62 patients with evident clinical symptoms. Histopathology and histochemistry were performed on wax-embedded sections. Immunohistochemical localization of caspase-3, N-cadherin and ADAM-10 was undertaken in order to highlight links between apoptosis, as expressed by caspase-3 immunostaining, and possible roles of N-cadherin, a cell-cell junction protein in VSMCs and macrophages that provides a pro-survival signal reducing apoptosis, and ADAM-10, a \"disintegrin and metalloproteases\" that is able to cleave N-cadherin in glioblastomas. Our results showed that when apoptosis, expressed by caspase-3 immunostaining, increased in the fibrous cap, rich in VSMCs and macrophages, the expression of N-cadherin decreased. The decreased N-cadherin expression, in turn, was linked to increased ADAM-10 expression. This study shows that apoptotic events are probably involved in the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaque.

Under physiological and pathological conditions, vascular smooth muscle cells (SMC) are exposed to different biochemical factors and biomechanical forces. Previous studies pertaining to SMC responses have not investigated the effects of both factors on SMCs. Thus, in our research we investigated the combined effects of growth factors like Bfgf (basic fibroblast growth factor), TGF-beta (transforming growth factor beta) and PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor) along with physiological cyclic strain on SMC responses. Physiological cyclic strain (10% strain) significantly reduced SMC proliferation compared to static controls while addition of growth factors bFGF, TGF-beta or PDGF-AB had a positive influence on SMC growth compared to strain alone. Microarray analysis of SMCs exposed to these growth factors and cyclic strain showed that several bioactive genes (vascular endothelial growth factor, epidermal growth factor receptor, etc.) were altered upon exposure. Further work involving biochemical and pathological cyclic strain stimulation will help us better understand the role of cyclic strain and growth factors in vascular functions and development of vascular disorders.