形成地球上各种化学物质和结构的材料-从山脉到海洋和生物有机体-都起源于由氢和氦主导的宇宙。数十亿年来,星系和恒星的组成和结构演变,和生活的元素,CHONPS,是通过恒星核心的核合成形成的。超新星和恒星碰撞等气候事件产生了更重的元素,并将它们传播到整个宇宙中,经常被纳入新的,更多富含金属的星星。恒星通常形成在含有少量尘埃的分子云中,通过高密度核心的崩溃。然后将周围的星云材料拉入原行星盘中,来自哪些行星,卫星,小行星,彗星最终会累积。在行星系统的吸积过程中,湍流混合可以使物质暴露于各种不同的热和辐射环境中。行星系统材料的化学和物理变化发生在吸积之前和整个吸积过程中,尽管有很多因素,比如离恒星的距离,影响历史,和经历的加热水平相结合,最终确定最终的地球物理特征。在地球的行星系统中,称为太阳系,在行星的轨道稳定到目前的配置之后,大的影响变得罕见,物体的组成和相对位置在很大程度上是固定的。行星-地球圈各自的化学和物理环境的进一步演变,水圈,然后大气变得依赖于当地的地球化学,它们与太阳辐射的大气相互作用,和较小的小行星撞击。在地球上,土地的存在,空气,和水,伴随着大量重要的地球物理和地球化学现象,导致了一个适合居住的星球,那里的条件适合生命的繁荣。
The materials that form the diverse chemicals and structures on Earth-from mountains to oceans and biological organisms-all originated in a universe dominated by hydrogen and helium. Over billions of years, the composition and structure of the galaxies and stars evolved, and the elements of life, CHONPS, were formed through nucleosynthesis in stellar cores. Climactic events such as supernovae and stellar collisions produced heavier elements and spread them throughout the cosmos, often to be incorporated into new, more metal-rich stars. Stars typically form in molecular clouds containing small amounts of dust through the collapse of a high-density core. The surrounding nebular material is then pulled into a protoplanetary disk, from which planets, moons, asteroids, and comets eventually accrete. During the accretion of planetary systems, turbulent mixing can expose matter to a variety of different thermal and radiative environments. Chemical and physical changes in planetary system materials occur before and throughout the process of accretion, though many factors such as distance from the star, impact history, and level of heating experienced combine to ultimately determine the final geophysical characteristics. In Earth\'s planetary system, called the Solar System, after the orbits of the planets had settled into their current configuration, large impacts became rare, and the composition of and relative positions of objects became largely fixed. Further evolution of the respective chemical and physical environments of the planets-geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere-then became dependent on their local geochemistry, their atmospheric interactions with solar radiation, and smaller asteroid impacts. On Earth, the presence of land, air, and water, along with an abundance of important geophysical and geochemical phenomena, led to a habitable planet where conditions were right for life to thrive.