In the 16th and 17th centuries, the study of Roman remains led to the questioning of many local traditions, including those that associated the episcopal see of Tournai with the valiant Nervii. The rediscovery of ancient Itineraries and the absence of vestiges in Tournai led scholars to question this association: they preferred to locate the city of the Nervii in Bavay. This new thesis irritated several Tournaisian authors who defended the illustrious past of their city. This scholarly controversy illustrates the new role that the material evidence played in the construction of historical discourses and local identity at that time.

Combining research from infant and child development, public health, anthropology, and history, this research examines the relationship between growth, growth disruption, and skeletal indicators of chronic and/or episodic physiological stress (stress) among juvenile individuals (n = 60) interred at the late antique infant and child cemetery at Poggio Gramignano (PG) (ca. 5th century CE), associated with a rural agricultural community.
Growth disruption-evidenced by decreased long bone length compared to dental age-and stress experience-evidenced by skeletal stress indicators-within these individuals are compared to those within juveniles from a comparative sample (n = 66) from two urban Roman-era cemeteries, Villa Rustica (VR) (0-250 CE) and Tragurium City Necropolis (TCN) (0-700 CE).
Results indicate that individuals from PG had significantly smaller femoral lengths-for-age than those from VR and TCN; however, the frequency of skeletal stress indicators was higher among juveniles from VR and TCN.
These differences in growth and stress experience are likely related to the different biosocial and ecological environments present in these two regions. For the community at PG, internal and external violent conflicts, as well as social, political, and economic turmoil, and subsistence shortages, endemic and epidemic infectious disease, nutritional deficiencies, and inherited or acquired anemia may have synergized to create chronically and/or episodically deleterious conditions for its juveniles.

Ancient Greek colour terminology captures brightness, light, and brilliance rather than clear-cut portions of the chromatic spectrum, as scholars agree today. This also applies to the rich semantic of yellow, which we investigate starting from a philosophical and theoretical perspective. We then shift our focus to Graeco-Roman technical writings dealing with alchemical dyes, cosmetics, and other crafts that made use of the same set of ingredients and colouring substances. We compile a complete list of yellow-dyeing plants used in antiquity, which will update and enlarge the lists currently available in secondary literature on the topic, such as the seminal catalogue by Robert J. Forbes. Drawing on these data and on laboratory reconstructions, we address two main questions. First, which shades of yellow were usually associated with the colour of gold, and how were these tints produced by ancient craftsmen and alchemists? And second, how did these procedures contribute to the ancient discourse on the colour of gold and its artificial reproduction?

The possibility that Alzheimer\'s disease and related dementias (ADRD) is a modern disease arises from the minimal mention of advanced cognitive decline by ancient Greeks and Romans, who were mainly concerned with the physical frailties of older ages.
Because standard medical histories of elderly health lacked mention of cognitive decline, we examined texts by Greek and Roman authors that mentioned memory loss and dementia.
Primary texts of Greco-Roman authors, 8th century BCE into the 3rd century CE, that mentioned cognitive decline were identified and critically evaluated. Secondary sources were excluded.
No ancient account of cognitive loss is equivalent to modern clinical data. The term dementia was occasionally used in antiquity, but not invariably linked to old age. Ancient Greeks and Romans expected intellectual competence beyond age 60. While some memory loss was acknowledged, we found only four accounts of severe cognitive loss that might represent ADRD. The possibility of modest ADRD prevalence in ancient Greece and Rome is consistent with its low prevalence in the Tsimane of Bolivia. These contemporary Amerindians live under conditions of high mortality from frequent infections and minimal cardiovascular disease with physically demanding lives. Tsimane after age 60 had increased mild cognitive impairment; the few cases of dementia were not clinically consistent with AD.
The modern \'epidemic level\' of advanced dementias was not described among ancient Greco-Roman elderly. The possible emergence of advanced ADRD in the Roman era may be associated with environmental factors of air pollution and increased exposure to lead. Further historical analysis may formulate critical hypotheses about the modernity of high ADRD prevalence.

In the second century CE the Roman Empire had increasing contact with Sarmatians, nomadic Iranian speakers occupying an area stretching from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to the Carpathian mountains, both in the Caucasus and in the Danubian borders of the empire.1,2,3 In 175 CE, following their defeat in the Marcomannic Wars, emperor Marcus Aurelius drafted Sarmatian cavalry into Roman legions and deployed 5,500 Sarmatian soldiers to Britain, as recorded by contemporary historian Cassius Dio.4,5 Little is known about where the Sarmatian cavalry were stationed, and no individuals connected with this historically attested event have been identified to date, leaving its impact on Britain largely unknown. Here we document Caucasus- and Sarmatian-related ancestry in the whole genome of a Roman-period individual (126-228 calibrated [cal.] CE)-an outlier without traceable ancestry related to local populations in Britain-recovered from a farmstead site in present-day Cambridgeshire, UK. Stable isotopes support a life history of mobility during childhood. Although several scenarios are possible, the historical deployment of Sarmatians to Britain provides a parsimonious explanation for this individual\'s extraordinary life history. Regardless of the factors behind his migrations, these results highlight how long-range mobility facilitated by the Roman Empire impacted provincial locations outside of urban centers.

When humans discovered agriculture and livestock, they ceased to be nomads and began to settle in towns until they created large cities. From the first human settlements in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Anatolian Peninsula, populations were exposed and susceptible to new infectious agents, leading to epidemics and pandemics. Great civilizations emerged, such as Egypt, the land of Hatti, Israel, Greece, Carthage, and Rome, among others. Contact between different populations through wars or maritime trade is well documented and has been described as a source of epidemics throughout history. Epidemics described as plagues or pestilences, such as those of Egypt, the Hebrews, or the Hittites, are based on biblical texts or evidence such as tablets or hieroglyphic writings. We also reviewed classical books by authors such as Homer, Aeschylus, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Titus Livius, Suetonius, and others; and described all epidemics/pandemics chronologically. This article describes the epidemics/pandemics for which there is written evidence from ancient Egypt to the fall of the Roman Empire. We should not be surprised when new epidemics/pandemics appear as causes of political and economic collapse, as this has been common throughout history, decimating, blocking, or even destroying cultures and civilizations repeatedly.
Cuando el hombre descubrió la agricultura y la ganadería, dejó de ser nómada y empezó a asentarse en pueblos hasta crear grandes ciudades. Desde los primeros asentamientos humanos en Egipto, Mesopotamia y la península de Anatolia, las poblaciones estuvieron expuestas y susceptibles a nuevos agentes infecciosos, dando lugar a epidemias y pandemias. Aparecieron grandes civilizaciones como Egipto, la Tierra de Hatti, Israel, Grecia, Cartago y Roma, entre otras. El contacto entre las distintas poblaciones a través de las guerras o el comercio marítimo está muy bien establecido y descrito como focos de epidemias a lo largo de la historia. Las epidemias descritas como plagas o pestilencias, como las que ocurrieron a los egipcios, los judíos, o los hititas, se describen con base en textos bíblicos o mediante evidencias como tablillas o escritos jeroglíficos. También revisamos libros clásicos de autores como Homero, Esquilo, Herodoto de Halicarnaso, Tucídides, Diodoro Sículo, Dionisio de Halicarnaso, Tito Livio, Suetonio, entre otros. Este artículo describe cronológicamente todas las epidemias/pandemias de las que existe evidencia a través de la escritura desde el antiguo Egipto hasta la caída del Imperio Romano. No debemos sorprendernos cuando aparecen nuevas epidemias/pandemias como causantes del colapso político y económico, ya que ha sido algo común a lo largo de la historia, diezmando, bloqueando o incluso destruyendo culturas y civilizaciones reiteradamente.

During the fifth century, the Roman Empire underwent dramatic changes. New, ethnically identified polities emerged in the Mediterranean region. Historical research has highlighted the social complexities of this process. Archaeogenetics now shows the remarkably high genetic diversity of post-Roman local societies.

BACKGROUND: The case histories in the writings of the Greco-Roman physician Galen of Pergamum have so far been interpreted primarily in literary and socio-historic terms. Analysis focused on the medical aspects is still incomplete.
OBJECTIVE: Which competence for the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the musculoskeletal system do the Galenic case reports communicate?
UNASSIGNED: The 358 Galenic case histories were studied for anamnestic, clinical, therapeutic, and epidemiological statements on inflammatory diseases of the musculoskeletal system.
RESULTS: Eight case reports could be identified in which inflammatory diseases of the musculoskeletal system are discussed. The descriptions are found in the writings On the Powers and Mixtures of Simple Drugs (n = 3), On the Composition of Drugs according to Kind (n = 2), Therapeutics to Glaucon (n = 1), How to detect Malingerers (n = 1) and On Hippocrates\' \'Aphorisms\' (n = 1). Seven male individuals and one group of patients are described; in one case a proper name is given. The descriptions do not follow a fixed structure. The texts are dominated by information on the anamnesis and catamnesis, the results of the physical examination and the choice of therapy. The author has repeatedly combined the case description with theoretical explanations. The most common inflammatory diseases of the musculoskeletal system that Galen was confronted with were soft tissue swelling without/with associated skin symptoms, gout, arthritis and sciatica. Knees and feet were affected more frequently than the hands. Galen himself was always the observing and treating physician. Therapy was dominated by ointments, fats and oils that should lead to the distraction or drying out of pathogenic juices. The statements on the prognosis were mostly favourable.
CONCLUSIONS: The case reports illustrate the range of inflammatory diseases of the musculoskeletal system without being able to reliably identify individual nosological entities retrospectively. Equating \'arthritis\' with chronic polyarthritis and \'podagra\' with gout is also not undisputed. The doctor-patient-conversations are the most original element in terms of content and style. The explanations for the choice of therapy show that the numerous mixed agents disposable for the treatment of patients with inflammatory diseases of the musculoskeletal system were prescribed after critically weighing the advantages against the disadvantages.
UNASSIGNED: HINTERGRUND: Die Fallbeschreibungen im Opus des griechisch-römischen Arztes Galen von Pergamon sind bisher überwiegend literarisch und sozialhistorisch untersucht worden. Die auf die medizinischen Aspekte fokussierte Analyse ist noch unvollständig.
UNASSIGNED: Welche Kompetenz vermitteln die galenischen Fallberichte über entzündliche Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats?
UNASSIGNED: Die 358 galenischen Kasuistiken wurden auf anamnestische, klinische, therapeutische und epidemiologische Aussagen zu entzündlichen Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats untersucht.
UNASSIGNED: Es konnten acht Fallberichte identifiziert werden, in denen entzündliche Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats thematisiert sind; die Kasuistiken finden sich in den Schriften Über die Mischungen und Eigenschaften der einfachen Heilmittel (n = 3), Über die Herstellung der verschiedenen Arten von Heilmitteln (n = 2), Medizinische Methodenlehre für Glaukon (n = 1), Simulantenschrift (n = 1) und im Kommentar zu den Aphorismen des Hippokrates (n = 1). Es werden sieben männliche Einzelpersonen und eine Gruppe von Patienten beschrieben; in einem Fall wird ein Eigenname mitgeteilt. Die Schilderungen folgen keinem festen Gliederungsschema. Die Texte werden von Angaben zu Ana- und Katamnese, den Ergebnissen der körperlichen Untersuchung und der Wahl der Behandlung dominiert. Mehrfach hat der Autor die Fallbeschreibung mit theoretischen Ausführungen kombiniert. Die häufigsten entzündlichen Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats, mit denen sich Galen konfrontiert sah, waren Weichteilschwellungen ohne/mit begleitende(n) Hauterscheinungen, Gicht, Arthritis und Ischias. Knie und Füße waren häufiger befallen als die Hände. Stets ist Galen selbst der beobachtende und behandelnde Arzt. Die Therapie war von Salben, Fetten und Ölen dominiert, die zur Ablenkung bzw. Austrocknung krankmachender Säfte führen sollten. Die Aussagen zur Prognose waren überwiegend günstig.
CONCLUSIONS: Die Fallberichte illustrieren mehrere entzündliche Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats, ohne dass bestimmte nosologische Entitäten retrospektiv zuverlässig identifiziert werden können. Auch die Gleichsetzung von „arthritis“ mit chronischer Polyarthritis und „podagra“ mit Gicht ist nicht in allen Fällen gesichert. Die Arzt-Patienten-Gespräche bilden das inhaltlich wie stilistisch originellste Element. Die Ausführungen zur Wahl der Therapie zeigen, dass dem Arzt der Antike für die Behandlung von Patienten mit entzündlichen Erkrankungen des Bewegungsapparats zahlreiche gemischte Arzneimittel zur äußerlichen Anwendung zur Verfügung standen, die stets nach kritischer Abwägung der Vor- und Nachteile verordnet worden sind.

We present novel insights into trade in amphorae-borne products over a 550-year period in Germania along the frontier of the Roman Empire, derived through probabilistic aoristic methods to study temporal changes in archaeological materials. Our data analysis reveals highly detailed differential patterns of consumption and production within the German market. We show how connections to far-flung regions such as the Eastern Mediterranean or the Iberian Peninsula wax and wane through time, and how the local German producers start to compete with these imported products. These chronological patterns provide important insight into a regional market within the larger Roman economy and provide an important case study in changing economic connections over a long period, demonstrating in a transparent and reproducible way a geographical and chronological pulsation in market activity that was otherwise unknown and undemonstrated.

In this study, 160 silver-copper alloy denarii and antoniniani from the 3rd century A.D. were studied to obtain their overall chemical composition. The approach used for their characterisation is based on a combination of physical, chemical, and chemometric techniques. The aim is to identify and quantify major and trace elements in Roman silver-copper coins in order to assess changes in composition and to confirm the devaluation of the currency. After a first cataloguing step, μ-EDXRF and SEM-EDX techniques were performed to identify the elements on the coins’ surface. A micro-destructive sampling method was employed on a representative sample of the coins to quantify the elements present in the bulk. The powder obtained from drilling 12 coins (keeping the two categories of coins separate) was dissolved in an acidic medium; heated and sonicated to facilitate dissolution; and then analysed by ICP-AES and ICP-MS. The two currencies had different average alloy percentages; in particular, the % difference of Ag was about 8%. The other elements were found in concentrations <1 wt%. Of these, the element highest in concentration were Pb and Sn, which is in agreement with the literature. The multivariate analysis performed on the data acquired revealed two groups of coins, corresponding to the two currencies.