Caves have long been recognized as a window into the mechanisms of diversification and convergent evolution, due to the unique conditions of isolation and life in the dark. These lead to adaptations and reduce dispersal and gene flow, resulting in high levels of speciation and endemism. The Israeli cave arachnofauna remains poorly known, but likely represents a rich assemblage. In a recent survey, we found troglophilic funnel-web spiders of the genus Tegenaria in 26 caves, present mostly at the cave entrance ecological zone. In addition, we identified at least 14 caves inhabited by troglobitic Tegenaria, which are present mostly in the twilight and dark ecological zones. Ten of the caves, located in the north and center of Israel, are inhabited by both troglophilic and troglobitic Tegenaria. These spiders bear superficial phenotypic similarities but differ in the levels of eye reduction and pigmentation. To test whether these taxa constitute separate species, as well as understand their relationships to epigean counterparts, we conducted a broad geographic sampling of cave-dwelling Tegenaria in Israel and Palestine, using morphological and molecular evidence. Counterintuitively, our results show that the troglobitic Tegenaria we studied are distantly related to the troglophilic Tegenaria found at each of the cave entrances we sampled. Moreover, seven new troglobitic species can be identified based on genetic differences, eye reduction level, and features of the female and male genitalia. Our COI analysis suggest that the Israeli troglobitic Tegenaria species are more closely related to eastern-Mediterranean congeners than to the local sympatric troglophile Tegenaria species, suggesting a complex biogeographic history.

Translocation, the movement of organisms for conservation purposes, can result in unintended introgression if genetic material flows between populations in new ways. The Bluemask Darter Etheostoma akatulo is a federally endangered species of freshwater fish inhabiting the Caney Fork River system and three of its tributaries (Collins River, Rocky River, and Cane Creek) in Tennessee. The current conservation strategy for Bluemask Darters involves translocating the progeny of broodstock from the Collins River (in the west) to the Calfkiller River (in the east) where the species had been extirpated. In this study, we use ddRAD sequence data from across the extant range to assess this translocation strategy in light of population structure, phylogeny, and demography. We also include museum specimen data to assess morphological variation among extant and extirpated populations. Our analyses reveal substantial genetic and phenotypic disparities between a western population in the Collins River and an eastern population encompassing the Rocky River, Cane Creek, and upper Caney Fork, the two of which shared common ancestry more than 100,000 years ago. Furthermore, morphological analyses classify 12 of 13 Calfkiller River specimens with phenotypes consistent with the eastern population. These results suggest that current translocations perturb the evolutionary boundaries between two delimited populations. Instead, we suggest that repopulating the Calfkiller River using juveniles from the Rocky River could balance conflicting signatures of demography, diversity, and divergence. Beyond conservation, the microgeographic structure of Bluemask Darter populations adds another puzzle to the phylogeography of the hyperdiverse freshwater fishes in eastern North America.

Three new sea fan species of Leptogorgia were discovered during multiple scuba diving expeditions along the Gulf of California coast and islands. Leptogorgia iridis sp. nov. is distributed in the southern region of the gulf (Mexican Province), inhabiting tropical rocky reefs of the Islas Marías Archipelago (Nayarit) and Bahía Banderas (Jalisco). This species has small colonies (< 7 cm height) with at least five clearly distinct chromotypes. Leptogorgia martirensis sp. nov. was found exclusively on the rocky reefs of San Pedro Mártir and San Esteban Islands located in the northern region of the Gulf of California (northern region of Cortez Province). Leptogorgia enrici sp. nov. is distributed from the south to the northern region of the Gulf of California (Cortez Province), inhabiting substrates of rocky reefs, sandy and pebbly sea floors. Comprehensive ecological diving expeditions to identify and classify octocorals in the Mexican Pacific (1995-2019) indicate that L. iridis sp. nov. and L. martirensis sp. nov. are likely to be micro-endemics and L. enrici sp. nov. is endemic to the Gulf of California, which defines their currently known biogeographic distribution ranges.

Eupsophus migueli is considered a microendemic endangered species inhabiting the temperate Nothofagus forests of the Mahuidanche Range of southern Chile. However, this categorization is based on scarce data about its distribution and natural history. In order to assess these parameters, this article reports new geographic records obtained through intensive fieldwork between 2011 and 2016. Considering this, an updated distribution map for E. migueli is proposed, and new data about natural history traits and habitat use are provided. The information obtained in this study is discussed considering the zoogeographical importance of E. migueli, and confirms the species IUCN conservation status.
ResumenEupsophus migueli está considerada como una especie microendémica en peligro de extinción que habita los bosques templados de Nothofagus de la Cordillera de Mahuidanche, sur de Chile. Sin embargo, esta categorización está basada en poca información acerca de su distribución e historia natural. Con el fin de evaluar ambos parámetros, en este artículo se reportan nuevos registros geográficos, obtenidos de manera intensiva entre los años 2011 y 2016. De esta forma, se propone un mapa de distribución actualizado para E. migueli, y se presentan nuevos datos sobre los rasgos de historia natural y sobre el uso del hábitat. Los nuevos antecedentes se discuten en referencia a la importancia zoogeográfica de E. migueli, y reafirman su categoría de conservación.

Several centers of endemism have been proposed for Melastomataceae, particularly in Amazonia and Atlantic Forest. Despite the high degree of human-caused degradation in the last 500 years, the Atlantic Forest still presents some of the largest levels of diversity and endemism across all angiosperms. With several recently described species in the last decade, the knowledge on Bertolonia\'s distribution and morphological characterization has changed, with most new species found in northern Atlantic Forest and with different flower color patterns than the species from southern Atlantic Forest. We first tested the monophyly of the genus sampling over 85% of its species to generate a reliable phylogenetic hypothesis. Afterwards, we used Bertolonia as a model group to study distribution patterns and morphological evolution of lineages in the Atlantic Forest. Bertolonia is particularly interesting to address such questions because it is endemic to this domain, with species distributed either in the southern, central or northern portions of the Atlantic Forest. The second step of our work aimed to respond (1) Do closely related species endemic to Atlantic Forest tend to have similar distributions and share similar morphological traits? and (2) Are floral traits more conserved within clades than vegetative characters? We hypothesize that both (1) and (2) are true due to the low dispersal ability and consequent microendemic distribution of most species in the genus. Our results confirm the veracity of the proposed hypotheses. Three major groups were recovered in our analysis: marmorata, formosa and nymphaeifolia clades. Most species that occur in northern Atlantic Forest were recovered in the marmorata clade. Most species distributed in central Atlantic Forest were recovered in the formosa clade, and the ones from the southern Atlantic Forest in the nymphaeifolia clade. A similar pattern was recovered with reproductive characters reconstructed across the phylogeny. Generally, species with pink petals and cream-colored anthers with an extrorse pore occur in northern Atlantic Forest, and species with white petals and yellow anthers with an introrse or apical pore tend to occur in southern Atlantic Forest. Some vegetative characters also have evolutionary congruence and are restricted to one or few lineages, while other characters, such as the texture of the leaf blade surface, have a strong taxonomic value and are useful to identify species, but are not homologous. Our analysis also indicates that the division between southern and northern Atlantic Forest could also be related to ancient events, not only linked with recent phylogeographic patterns. Moreover, we suggest that the orientation of the anther pore in Bertolonia could be related with diversity of species and stability of its populations. In summary, we corroborate, based on the evolutionary history of Bertolonia, that closely related species endemic to Atlantic Forest tend to have similar distributions and share similar morphological floral traits.

The Western Ghats (WG) is an escarpment on the west coast of Peninsular India, housing one of the richest assemblages of frogs in the world, with three endemic families. Here, we report the discovery of a new ancient lineage from a high-elevation massif in the Wayanad Plateau of the southern WG. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that the lineage belongs to Natatanura and clusters with Nyctibatrachidae, a family endemic to the WG/Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. Based on geographic distribution, unique morphological traits, deep genetic divergence, and phylogenetic position that distinguishes the lineage from the two nyctibatrachid subfamilies Nyctibatrachinae Blommers-Schlösser, 1993 and Lankanectinae Dubois & Ohler, 2001, we erect a new subfamily Astrobatrachinae subfam. nov. (endemic to the WG, Peninsular India), and describe a new genus Astrobatrachus gen. nov. and species, Astrobatrachus kurichiyana sp. nov. The discovery of this species adds to the list of deeply divergent and monotypic or depauperate lineages with narrow geographic ranges in the southern massifs of the WG. The southern regions of the WG have long been considered geographic and climatic refugia, and this new relict lineage underscores their evolutionary significance. The small range of this species exclusively outside protected areas highlights the significance of reserve forest tracts in the WG in housing evolutionary novelty. This reinforces the need for intensive sampling to uncover new lineages and advance our understanding of the historical biogeography of this ancient landmass.

Dispersal is a critical factor determining the spatial scale of speciation, which is constrained by the ecological characteristics and distribution of a species\' habitat and the intrinsic traits of species. Endogean taxa are strongly affected by the unique qualities of the below-ground environment and its effect on dispersal, and contrasting reports indicate either high dispersal capabilities favoured by small body size and mediated by passive mechanisms, or low dispersal due to restricted movement and confinement inside the soil. We studied a species-rich endogean ground beetle lineage, Typhlocharina, including three genera and more than 60 species, as a model for the evolutionary biology of dispersal and speciation in the deep soil. A time-calibrated molecular phylogeny generated from >400 individuals was used to delimit candidate species, to study the accumulation of lineages through space and time by species-area-age relationships and to determine the geographical structure of the diversification using the relationship between phylogenetic and geographic distances across the phylogeny. Our results indicated a small spatial scale of speciation in Typhlocharina and low dispersal capacity combined with sporadic long distance, presumably passive dispersal events that fuelled the speciation process. Analysis of lineage growth within Typhlocharina revealed a richness plateau correlated with the range of distribution of lineages, suggesting a long-term species richness equilibrium mediated by density dependence through limits of habitat availability. The interplay of area- and age-dependent processes ruling the lineage diversification in Typhlocharina may serve as a general model for the evolution of high species diversity in endogean mesofauna.

A new species of Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae) is described from the Atlantic Forest of northeastern state of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Nine specimens (eight adults and a juvenile) were collected from the leaf litter of montane forests 790-835 m above sea level (a.s.l.). The new species is a member of the pernix group by its bufoniform shape and the absence of dermal co-ossification and is distinguished from all its congeners by a combination of its general coloration (dorsal region of head, dorsum, legs, arms, and flanks light, brownish green to dark, olive green, with darker region in the middle of the dorsum and a white line along the vertebral column in most specimens) and by its smooth dorsum. The geographical distribution of the new species is highly reduced (extent of occurrence estimated as 25.04 ha, or possibly 34.37 ha). In addition, its habitat has experienced some level of degradation, raising concerns about the future conservation of the species. Preliminary density estimates suggest one calling individual every 3-4 m2 at 815-835 m a.s.l. and every 100 m2 at 790 m a.s.l. Together with the recently described B. boticario and B. fuscolineatus, the new species is among the southernmost species of Brachycephalus known to date.

We describe and illustrate Paepalanthusserpens, a microendemic species of Eriocaulaceae from the Espinhaço Range. The species is known from a single population growing in rocky areas of the Serra do Cipó, Minas Gerais. It is placed in Paepalanthusser.Paepalanthus, and is easily distinguished from its congeneric species by its elongated, lignescent stem, thickened by the marcescent sheaths of the linear leaves, which are arranged in a rosette at the stem apex, scapes equalling the leaf height, and capitulae with straw-coloured involucral bracts. Comparisons with the morphologically similar species are provided, as well as comments on distribution, ecology, phenology and conservation status.
ResumoDescrevemos e ilustramos Paepalanthusserpens, espécie microendêmica de Eriocaulaceae da Cadeia do Espinhaço. Esta espécie é conhecida por apenas uma população, que cresce nos campos rupestres da Serra do Cipó, Minas Gerais. A espécie é classificada em Paepalanthusser.Paepalanthus e é facilmente distinguida das demais espécies do gênero pelo caule alongado e lignificado, espessado pelas bainhas mascescentes das folhas lineares, as quais estão dispostas em roseta no ápice do caule, escapos na altura das folhas e capítulos com brácteas estramíneas. Comparações com as espécies morfologicamente mais próximas são providas, assim como comentários sobre distribuição, ecologia, fenologia e estado de conservação.

The Malagasy giant pill-millipede genus Sphaeromimus de Saussure & Zehntner, 1902 is revised. Seven new species, S. titanus sp. n., S. vatovavy sp. n., S. lavasoa sp. n., S. andohahela sp. n., S. ivohibe sp. n., S. saintelucei sp. n., and S. andrahomana sp. n. were discovered, in one case with the help of sequence data, in the rainforests of southeastern Madagascar. The species are described using light- and scanning electron microscopy. A key to all 10 species of the genus is presented. All but one (S. andohahela) of the newly discovered species are microendemics each occurring in isolated forest fragments. The mitochondrial COI barcoding gene was amplified and sequenced for 18 Sphaeromimus specimens, and a dataset containing COI sequences of 28 specimens representing all Sphaeromimus species (except S. vatovavy) was analyzed. All species are genetically monophyletic. Interspecific uncorrected genetic distances were moderate (4-10%) to high (18-25%), whereas intraspecific variation is low (0-3.5%). Sequence data allowed the correct identification of three colour morphs of S. musicus, as well as the identity of a cave specimen, which although aberrant in its morphology and colouration, was genetically identical to the holotype of S. andrahoma.