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This review of the treatment of uncomplicated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) focuses on the susceptibility profile of the main microbiological causes as well as on the advantages and inconvenients of relevant antibiotics. As bacterial resistance is expanding in the community, the rules of adequate antibiotic prescribing are integrated in the treatment proposals. While the pathogenic role of anaerobic bacteria in uncomplicated PID remains discussed, the choice to provide anaerobes coverage is proposed. Thus, the antibiotic treatment has to cover Chamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, anaerobes as well as Streptococcus spp, gram negative bacteria and the ermerging Mycoplasma genitalium. On the basis of published trials and good practice antibiotic usage, the ceftriaxone-doxycycline-metronidazole combination has been selected as the first line regimen. Fluoroquinolones (moxifloxacin alone, or levofloxacin or ofloxacin combined with metronidazole) are proposed as alternatives because of their ecological impact and their side effects leading to restricted usage. When fluoroquinolone are used, ceftriaxone should be added in case of possible sexually transmitted infection. When detected, M. genitalium should be treated by moxifloxacin. Moreover, this review highlights the need to better describe the microbiological epidemiology of uncomplicated PID in France or Europe.

To determine the microorganisms potentially involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases (PIDs) and the different diagnostic methods of PID.
PubMed and International Guidelines search.
PIDs have various microbial causes. The pathogenic role of the main agents of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Mycoplasma genitalium is well demonstrated (NP1). C. trachomatis is the most commonly described bacterium in PID (NP1), especially in women under 30 years old. PIDs also occur in situations that decrease the effectiveness of the cervix microbiological lock, such as bacterial vaginosis, allowing facultative vaginal bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Streptococcus agalactiae and anaerobes to ascend to the uterine cavity. Nevertheless, participation of the diverse bacteria of the vaginal microbiota, in particular anaerobes, and the polymicrobial character of PIDs are still differently appreciated. In the case of uncomplicated PID, to obtain a microbiological diagnosis, endocervical sampling is recommended during gynecological examination under speculum (grade B). A first swab allows for a smear on a slide for direct examination (Gram, MGG). A second swab, in an adapted transport medium, is useful for standard culture with N. gonorrhoeae and facultative vaginal flora bacteria cultures, with antibiotic susceptibility testing. A third swab, in an appropriate transport medium, allows for the search for N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, and if possible M. genitalium by nucleic acid amplification techniques (NAATs), (NP1). It is possible to only use one swab in a transport medium suitable for (i) survival of bacteria and (ii) NAATs. When the diagnosis of PID is clinically compatible, a positive NAAT for one or more of the three STI-associated bacteria on a genital sample supports the PID diagnosis (NP1). On the other hand, a negative NAAT does not allow the exclusion of an STI agent for PID diagnosis (NP1). In situations where speculum use is not possible, vaginal sampling will be performed by default. In case of complicated IGH, tuboperitoneal samples can be performed either radiologically or surgically. Since these sites are sterile, any bacteria present will be considered pathogenic (NP2). C. trachomatis serology is not interesting as a first line diagnostic tool for PID diagnosis and is not useful for monitoring the evolution of PID (NP1).

The objective of this literature review is to update the recommendations for clinical practice about the diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), microbiologic diagnosis excluded. An adnexal pain or cervical motion tenderness are the signs that allow a positive diagnosis of PID (LE2). Associated signs (fever, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia) reinforce clinical diagnosis (LE2). In a woman consulting for symptoms compatible with PID, a pelvic clinical examination is recommended (grade B). In cases of suspected PID, hyperleukocytosis associated with a high C-reactive protein suggests a complicated PID or a differential diagnosis such as acute appendicitis (LE3). The absence of hyperleukocytosis or normal CRP does not rule out the diagnosis of PID (LE1). When PID is suspected, a blood test with a blood count and a CRP test is recommended (grade C). Pelvic ultrasound scan does not contribute to the positive diagnosis of uncomplicated PID because it is insensitive and unspecific (LE3). However, ultrasound scan is recommended to look for signs of complicated PID (polymorphic collection) or differential diagnosis (grade C). Waiting for an ultrasound scan to be performed should not delay the start-up of antibiotic therapy. In case of diagnostic uncertainty, an abdominal-pelvic CT scan with contrast injection is useful for differential diagnosis of urinary, digestive or gynaecological origin (LE2). Laparoscopy is not recommended for the unique purpose of the positive diagnosis of PID (grade B).

To determine the procedures for follow-up and counselling of patients after pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).
A search in the Cochrane database, PubMed, and Google was performed using keywords related to follow-up and PID to identify reports published between 1990 and 2018. All studies published in French and English relevant to the areas of focus were included. A level of evidence (LE) based on the quality of the data available was applied for each area of focus and used for the guidelines.
The rate of recurrent PID is 15 to 21%. They are related to a recurrent sexually transmitted infection (STI) in 20 to 34% of cases. Recurrence PID increase the risk of infertility and chronic pelvic pain (LE2). Follow-up is recommended after PID (grade C). The rate of patients lost to follow-up is around 40%. Follow-up is improved by personalized text message reminders (grade B). Vaginal sampling for detection of N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, (and M. genitalium) by nucleic acid amplification techniques is recommended 3 to 6 months after treatment of PID associated with STI to rule out possible reinfections (grade C). The use of condoms after PID associated with STI is recommended to reduce the risk of recurrences (grade C). The systematic use of contraceptive pills after PID is not recommended to prevent subsequent infertility and chronic pelvic pain. Vaginal sampling for microbiological diagnosis is recommended before the insertion of an intrauterine device (grade B). The risk of ectopic pregnancy is high in these women and must be kept in mind.
Patient counselling and microbiological testing after PID decrease the risk of STI and thus the recurrence of PID.

Numerous prophylactic antibiotic regimens (PBR) have been evaluated particularly in surgical abortion, hysterosalpingography or caesarean section, but few randomized comparative trials are available. Recommendations for PBR should take into account, expected and demonstrated benefits that reduce the risk of surgical site infection, but also the impact on the microbiota, the risk of bacterial resistance selection, and the overall cost to the community. In addition, antibiotic prophylaxis is not the only one factor to reduce the risk of surgical site infection, such as preventive measures and good hygiene practices.

BACKGROUND: Intrauterine device (IUD) is a reliable contraceptive method that is long term reversible, and well tolerated. Numerous studies prove its efficiency and report rare complications that are attributed to it. However, its use is limited due to fear that it can cause a pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). This is based on historical data on infections related to the \"Dalkon Shield\", which was removed from the market in 1974.
METHODS: The analyzed articles were extracted from PUBMED database between 2000 and 2016. In total, 22 studies were retained. A meta-analysis was not possible due to the methodological diversity among the selected articles contributing to this narrative review of the literature.
RESULTS: After analysis, the following factors influence the risk of PID linked to IUDs: an advanced age and sexually transmitted infections.
CONCLUSIONS: The risk of PID linked to IUDs is lower than 1%. This is explained by new models of IUD, better screening tests, more frequent follow-up of the patients and the improvement of care PID patients. In the light of our results, the threat of pelvic inflammatory disease should not hinder the use of IUDs.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the diagnosis profitability of endocervical specimen (ES) within the framework of a teaching gynecological emergency department by studying the circumstances of realization and its bacteriological results.
METHODS: We included in our study all the patients who had a gynecological exam with an ES during a consultation in our gynecological teaching emergency department of Tours between January 1st, 2012 and December 31st, 2012. We estimated the diagnosis profitability of realization of the ES (positivity rate within the population with ES, diagnosis correction in case of pelvic inflammatory disease).
RESULTS: Over the study period, 614 (12.4%) women consulting in our emergency department had an ES, which was positive among 102 (16.6%) of them, and a diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease in 64 patients. ES had a higher pertinence in case of abdominal pain and a lesser one in case of pregnancy for whom ES realisation must be limited. The diagnosis correction due to ES was observed in 46.8% of pelvic inflammatory disease.
CONCLUSIONS: The diagnostic profitability of the endocervical specimen in our emergency department was low, taking into account the whole cohort, but ES permitted to correct the diagnosis in about half of diagnosed pelvic inflammatory diseases. The endocervical specimens seem to have no profit in pregnant women.