OBJECTIVE: This study was performed with the purpose of analysing the relationship between epileptological and surgical variables and post-operative memory performance, following surgery for refractory mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) due to hippocampal sclerosis (HS).
METHODS: Logical memory (LM) and visual memory (VM) scores for immediate and late follow-up of 201 patients operated for MTLE/HS were reviewed. Scores were standardized with a control group of 54 healthy individuals matched for age and education. The Reliable Change Index (RCI) was calculated to verify individual memory changes for late LM and VM scores. A multiple linear regression analysis was carried out with the RCI, using LM and VM scores as well as the clinical variables.
RESULTS: A total of 112 (56%) patients had right HS. The RCI of the right HS group demonstrated that 6 (7%) patients showed improvement while 5 (6%) patients showed decreased scores in late LM; for late VM, 7 (8%) patients presented improvement, and 2 (3%) patients showed poorer scores. RCI of the left HS group showed that 3 (3%) individuals showed improved scores, while scores of 5 (4%) patients worsened for late LM; for late VM, 3 (3%) patients presented higher scores and 6 (5%) showed lower scores. Left HS and advanced age at onset of the first epileptic seizure were predictors of late LM loss (p<.05).
CONCLUSIONS: Left MTLE/HS and seizure onset at advanced ages were predictive factors for the worsening of late LM. We observed poorer baseline LM function in the left HS group and improvement of LM in some patients who had resection of the right MTL. Patients in the right HS group showed a higher percentage of reliable post-operative improvement for both VM and LM scores.

BACKGROUND: Children with epilepsy present greater prevalence of sleep disorders than the general population. Their diagnosis is essential, since epilepsy and sleep disorders have a bidirectional relationship.
OBJECTIVE: Determine the incidence of sleep disorders and poor sleep habits in children with epilepsy.
METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of patients under 18 years of age with epilepsy, assessing sleep disorders using the Spanish-language version of the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC), and sleep habits using an original questionnaire.
RESULTS: The sample included 153 patients. Eighty-four percent of our sample presented some type of sleep alteration. The most frequent alterations were sleep-wake transition disorders (53%), sleep initiation and maintenance disorders (47.7%), and daytime sleepiness (44.4%). In 70% of cases, the patients\' parents reported that their child \"slept well,\" although sleep disorders were detected in up to 75.7% of these patients. Many patients had poor sleep habits, such as using electronic devices in bed (16.3%), requiring the presence of a family member to fall asleep (39%), or co-sleeping or sharing a room (23.5% and 30.5%, respectively). Those with generalised epilepsy, refractory epilepsy, nocturnal seizures, and intellectual disability were more likely to present sleep disorders. In contrast, poor sleep habits were frequent regardless of seizure characteristics.
CONCLUSIONS: Sleep disorders and poor sleep habits are common in children with epilepsy. Their treatment can lead to an improvement in the quality of life of the patient and his/her family, as well as an improvement in the prognosis of epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: The association between antidepressant use and the risk of seizures remains controversial. Therefore, this meta-analysis examined whether antidepressant use affects the risk of seizures.
METHODS: To identify relevant observational studies, we conducted systematic searches in PubMed and Embase of studies published through May 2023. Random-effects models were used to estimate overall relative risk.
RESULTS: Our meta-analysis included eight studies involving 1,709,878 individuals. Our results showed that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) (odds ratio [OR] 1.48, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.32-1.66; P < 0.001) and selective noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors (SNRI) (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.24-2.19; P = 0.001), but not tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) (OR 1.27, 95% CI 0.84-1.92; P = 0.249), were associated with an increased risk of seizures. Subgroup analyses revealed an OR of 2.35 (95% CI 1.7, 3.24; P < 0.001) among short-term (< 30 days) antidepressant users.
CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this meta-analysis support an increased risk of seizures in new-generation antidepressant users, expanding previous knowledge by demonstrating a more pronounced risk in short-term users.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to determine whether the administration of antiepileptic drugs (AED) alters the likelihood of detecting epileptiform abnormalities in electroencephalographies (EEG) performed early after a first epileptic seizure.
METHODS: We performed a retrospective, observational study including patients with a first seizure attended at our centre\'s emergency department between July 2014 and November 2019. We collected clinical data, as well as technical data on the acquisition and interpretation of the EEG performed within the first 72 hours after the seizure, and the factors related with seizure recurrence.
RESULTS: We recruited 155 patients with a mean (SD) age of 48.6 (22.5) years; 61.3% were men. Regarding seizure type, 51% presented tonic-clonic seizures of unknown onset and 12% presented focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures. Thirty-nine patients (25.2%) received AED treatment before the EEG was performed: 33 received a non-benzodiazepine AED and 6 received a benzodiazepine. Epileptiform abnormalities were observed in 29.7% of patients. Previous administration of AEDs was not significantly associated with the probability of detecting interictal epileptiform abnormalities (P = .25) or with the risk of recurrence within 6 months (P = .63).
CONCLUSIONS: Administration of AEDs before an early EEG following a first seizure does not decrease the likelihood of detecting epileptiform abnormalities. These findings suggest that starting AED treatment immediately in patients with a high risk of early recurrence does not imply a reduction in the diagnostic accuracy of the test.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome is an acute neurological disorder characterized by variable symptoms and radiological images characteristic of vasogenic parietal-occipital edema. It is associated with clinical conditions such as high blood pressure, infection/sepsis, or cytotoxic/immunosuppressive drugs, among others. It is characterized pathophysiologically by endothelial damage with breakdown of blood-brain barrier, cerebral hypoperfusion, and vasogenic edema. The cases are presented on 2 critical COVID-19 patients who were admitted to pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation and who, after removing sedation, developed acute and reversible neurological symptoms consisting of epilepsy and encephalopathy, associated with hyperintense subcortical lesions on brain magnetic resonance imaging compatible with posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus would activate an inflammatory response that would damage brain endothelium. It could be triggered by cytokine release, as well as by direct viral injury, given that endothelium expresses ACE2 receptors. It could explain the possible association between posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome and COVID-19.

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is an autosomal dominant small-vessel disease caused by mutations of the NOTCH3 gene. It typically presents with migraine, recurrent brain ischaemia, and cognitive disorders. Seizures rarely present as the initial manifestation, with non-convulsive status epilepticus being even less frequent. We present a series of 3 related patients with this arteriopathy, 2 of whom presented status epilepticus as a manifestation of the disease.

BACKGROUND: The brain is a series of networks of functionally and anatomically connected, bilaterally represented structures; in epilepsy, activity of any part of the brain affects activity in the other parts. This is relevant for understanding the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of the disease.
OBJECTIVE: In this study, we present a state-of-the-art review of the neurophysiological view of epilepsy as a disease affecting neural networks.
RESULTS: We describe the basic and advanced principles of epilepsy as a disease affecting neural networks, based on the use of different clinical and mathematical techniques from a neurophysiological perspective, and signal the limitations of these findings in the clinical context.
CONCLUSIONS: Epilepsy is a disease affecting complex neural networks. Understanding these will enable better management and prognostic confidence.

BACKGROUND: The management of epilepsy during pregnancy requires optimal seizure control, avoiding the potential teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs.
OBJECTIVE: This study aims to describe the clinical characteristics and perinatal outcomes of pregnant patients with epilepsy; to analyse the factors associated with seizures during pregnancy; to describe the most commonly used antiseizure drugs in these patients; and to analyse changes in treatment regimens in 2 periods, 2000-2010 and 2011-2018.
METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study of patients with epilepsy who reported their pregnancy between 2000 and 2018. Patients were evaluated in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy, after delivery, and at one year. Data were collected on demographic variables, epilepsy, and perinatal and obstetric variables.
RESULTS: A total of 101 pregnancies were included. Patients\' mean age was 32.6 years; 55.4% had focal epilepsy, 38.6% had generalised epilepsy, and 5.9% had undetermined epilepsy. We recorded 90 live births, 9 miscarriages, and 5 cases of congenital malformations, 4 of which were born to women who received valproate monotherapy. Forty patients (39.6%) presented seizures, with 16 (40%) presenting generalised tonic-clonic seizures. The variables associated with seizures during pregnancy were poor seizure control in the year prior to pregnancy (66.7% vs 15.1%; P < .001), treatment with 2 or more antiseizure drugs (30% vs 14.8%; P < .001), and untreated epilepsy (25% vs 0%; P < .001). Antiseizure medications most widely used in monotherapy were lamotrigine (n = 19; 27.1%), valproate (n = 17; 24.2%), and levetiracetam (n = 12; 17.1%). In the most recent period (2011-2018), we observed a greater proportion of patients receiving monotherapy (81.5%, vs 55.3%), as well as a decrease in the use of carbamazepine (2.3%, vs 23.1%) and valproate (20.5%, vs 30.8%); and a marked increase in the use of levetiracetam (27.3%, vs 0%).
CONCLUSIONS: The factors associated with the presence of seizures during pregnancy were previous poor seizure control, treatment with 2 or more antiseizure drugs, and lack of treatment during pregnancy. The most commonly used drugs were lamotrigine, valproate, and levetiracetam, with an increase in levetiracetam use and a decrease in valproate use being observed in the later period (2011-2018).

OBJECTIVE: Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) is a technique for preoperative evaluation of patients with difficult-to-localise refractory focal epilepsy (DLRFE), enabling the study of deep cortical structures. The procedure, which is increasingly used in international epilepsy centres, has not been fully developed in Spain. We describe our experience with SEEG in the preoperative evaluation of DLRFE.
METHODS: In the last 8 years, 71 patients with DLRFE were evaluated with SEEG in our epilepsy centre. We prospectively analysed our results in terms of localisation of the epileptogenic zone (EZ), surgical outcomes, and complications associated with the procedure.
RESULTS: The median age of the sample was 30 years (range, 4-59 years); 27 patients (38%) were women. Forty-five patients (63.4%) showed no abnormalities on brain MR images. A total of 627 electrodes were implanted (median, 9 electrodes per patient; range, 1-17), and 50% of implantations were multilobar. The EZ was identified in 64 patients (90.1%), and was extratemporal or temporal plus in 66% of the cases. Follow-up was over one year in 55 of the 61 patients undergoing surgery: in the last year of follow-up, 58.2% were seizure-free (Engel Epilepsy Surgery Outcome Scale class I) and 76.4% had good outcomes (Engel I-II). Three patients (4.2%) presented brain haemorrhages.
CONCLUSIONS: SEEG enables localisation of the EZ in patients in whom this was previously impossible, offering better surgical outcomes than other invasive techniques while having a relatively low rate of complications.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to analyse the prevalence, characteristics, and management of simple and complex febrile seizures. The secondary objective was to compare the risk of underlying organic lesion and epilepsy in both types of seizures, with a particular focus on the different subtypes defining a complex febrile seizure.
METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study including patients aged 0--16 years who were treated for febrile seizures in the paediatric emergency department of a tertiary hospital over a period of 5 years. Epidemiological and clinical variables were collected. Patients were followed up for at least 2 years to confirm the final diagnosis.
RESULTS: We identified 654 patients with febrile seizures, with a prevalence of 0.20% (95% CI, 0.18-0.22); 537 (82%) had simple febrile seizures and 117 (18%) had complex febrile seizures. The clinical and epidemiological characteristics of both types were similar. Significantly more complementary tests were requested for complex febrile seizures: blood tests (71.8% vs 24.2% for simple febrile seizures), urine analysis (10.3% vs 2.4%), lumbar puncture (14.5% vs 1.5%), and CT (7.7% vs 0%). Similarly, admission was indicated more frequently (41.0% vs 6.1%). Underlying organic lesions (central nervous system infection, metabolic disease, tumour/intracranial space-occupying lesion, intoxication) were diagnosed in only 11 patients, 5 of whom had complex forms (4.3%; 95% CI, 0.6-7.9). Risk factors for developing epilepsy, identified in the multivariate analysis, were complex forms with recurrent seizures in a single attack (odds ratio [OR]: 4.94; 95% CI, 1.29-18.95), history of seizures (OR: 17.97; 95% CI, 2.26--143.10), and seizures presenting at atypical ages (OR: 11.69; 95% CI, 1.99-68.61).
CONCLUSIONS: The systematic indication of complementary tests or hospital admission of patients with complex febrile seizures is unnecessary. The risk of epilepsy in patients with complex forms gives rise to the need for follow-up in paediatric neurology departments.