Parent emotion socialization has long been studied in relation to children\'s socioemotional adjustment. Little attention has been paid to how parents\' socialization responses are shaped by youth characteristics over time, such as emotional lability. The present study explored the mutual influence between parent emotion socialization and adolescent emotional lability. Participants were 87 adolescents (M = 14.23  years old, SD = .50; 50 girls) and their parents, who completed questionnaires at three time points from 8th grade through 10th grade. Hierarchical linear modeling demonstrated mutual influences between parent emotion socialization and adolescent emotional lability, with relations moderated by adolescent gender. Increases in parents\' reward of negative emotion predicted decreased emotional lability in girls. Parents\' increased magnification of negative emotions corresponded to decreased emotional lability in boys. Boys\' increases in emotional lability predicted decreased parental magnification of negative emotions over time. Increases in parents\' magnification of negative emotions predicted increased emotional lability in girls. Girls\' increases in emotional lability corresponded to increased parental magnification over time. There were no longitudinal effects of adolescent emotional lability on parents\' reward, override, and punishment of negative emotions. Future directions and clinical applications are discussed.

The present study examined longitudinal, transactional associations between youth social adjustment (prosociality, peer relationship difficulties) and parental emotion socialization in early adolescence. Adolescent gender was considered as a potential moderator. Eighty-seven adolescent-parent dyads (50 girls, 37 boys) participated in 8th grade, with follow-up waves in 9th and 10th grade. Adolescents reported their experiences of peer victimization and their parents\' emotion socialization responses, and parents reported youth prosocial behavior and peer relation problems. Hierarchical linear modeling results indicated transactional associations between parent supportive/unsupportive responses and adolescent peer relations and prosociality over time, some of which were moderated by adolescent gender. Increases in parental supportive emotion socialization corresponded to decreased experiences of peer victimization over time for girls, but not boys. When peer victimization increased over time, girls reported less parental supportive responses and all adolescents reported receiving more unsupportive responses from parents. For all adolescents, parents\' increased supportive responses also corresponded to decreased peer problems and increased prosocial behavior. As prosocial behavior increased, so did parental supportive responses. Increases in parents\' unsupportive responses related to decreased prosocial behavior, and increases in adolescent prosocial behavior related to decreases in parents\' unsupportive responses. Results suggest that there is mutual influence between parent emotion socialization and adolescent social adjustment. Adolescent girls appear to uniquely benefit from parents\' supportive emotional socialization in relation to their experiences of peer victimization. Potential mechanisms and implications are discussed.

BACKGROUND: Developmental research suggests that children learn to regulate their emotions and behavior through a process of emotion socialization. The main body of literature is based on samples from the United States, and very little is known about the socialization of emotions in Nordic settings.
OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to explore associations between mothers\' and fathers\' reactions to children\'s negative emotions and externalizing behavior problems in a Nordic cultural context, and to explore gender differences in these associations.
METHODS: Parent-report data on the Coping with Children\'s Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES) and the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory 6 (ECBI) was collected in a large sample of Norwegian preschool-aged children (mothers, n = 242; fathers, n = 183; N = 257; M = 54 months, SD = 4.54; 49% boys). Teacher-report data was collected using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) conduct scale (n = 117).
RESULTS: Both parents\' supportive and non-supportive reactions were associated with child externalizing difficulties in expected directions as evidenced by path models, controlling for socioeconomic status and age. A pattern emerged in which non-supportive reactions to a greater extent predicted an increase in externalizing problems in girls, and supportive reactions predicted lower levels of externalizing problems in boys.
CONCLUSIONS: Our findings supported the basic assumptions of emotion socialization theory in a Nordic cultural context in which parental supportive and non-supportive responses are related to child externalizing difficulties. Nordic parents are important socialization agents for their children, but their behaviors had a differential effect on boys\' and girls\' externalizing behavior problems.

ABSTRACTEmploying a constructionist framework of emotion, this study examines whether parental language during emotion belief discussions predicts parents\' self-reported beliefs about emotion and child emotion regulation (ER). 102 parents of children ages 8 through 12 participated in focus groups about emotion beliefs, and nine months later, completed questionnaires on their emotion beliefs and child ER. Focus group content was analyzed for positive and negative emotion talk, cognitive process talk, and an established linguistic marker of psychological distancing. Parents\' positive emotion talk and parental linguistic distancing when discussing their child\'s (but not their own) emotion experiences positively predicted beliefs about children\'s emotional capabilities. Finally, negative emotion talk negatively predicted parental beliefs about children\'s capacity to control their own emotions and the value of anger expression as well as child ER. Current findings contribute to our understanding of how parental communication patterns about emotions may influence emotion beliefs and child emotion development.

Emotion socialization is conceptualized as a relational process, yet children\'s role in socializing parents\' emotions is rarely considered. This study explored longitudinal patterns of mother-child emotion socialization from early to middle childhood. Participants were 349 children (51% boys, 49% girls) and their mothers from the southeastern United States. Children were 79.4% White, 12% Black or African American, and 8.3% multi-racial or other; 6.3% were Hispanic/Latino. Mother-child dyads completed an etch-a-sketch task when children were 3, 4, and 6 years old. At each time, mothers\' and children\'s expression, coaching, and dismissing of positive and negative emotions were observed. Hierarchical Linear Modeling analyses identified developmental trajectories and within-dyad associations of emotion coaching and dismissing with emotion expression. Over time, expression of positive emotions decreased and expression of negative emotions showed no change for both mothers and children. Mothers decreased in coaching children\'s positive emotions and showed no change in coaching children\'s negative emotions. Children increased in coaching mothers\' positive emotions and showed no change in coaching mothers\' negative emotions over time. Both mothers and children decreased in dismissing emotions over time. Within dyads, mothers\' increases in coaching and in dismissing related to children\'s increased expression. Children\'s increases in coaching related to mothers\' increased expression. Findings highlight complexity and dynamics of emotion socialization processes over time.

Caregiver sensitivity builds a basis for children\'s sense of security and effective emotion regulation during their development. Applying a cross-cultural lens, caregiver sensitivity can be divided into two subtypes, reactive and proactive, and its prevalence and meaning may differ across cultures. Guided by the theoretical frameworks of developmental niche and parental ethnotheories, the current study examines culture-specific meanings of caregiver sensitivity across five countries: India, Nepal, Korea, the United States of America (USA), and Germany. We examine the prevalence of maternal reactive and proactive sensitivity, children\'s emotional lability and regulation, and how mothers\' sensitivity types are related to children\'s emotional characteristics. Participants included 472 mothers from the five countries with children aged between 6 and 7 years. Mothers reported their sensitivity preference in multiple vignettes and completed an emotion regulation checklist to report their children\'s emotional lability and regulation. A set of analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) found cultural differences in mothers\' preference for proactive and reactive sensitivity. Mothers in India and Nepal reported the highest preference for proactive sensitivity followed by Korea and the USA, while German mothers reported the lowest preference for proactive sensitivity. Consequent regression analyses revealed varying associations between proactive sensitivity and child emotional characteristics in all five countries either directly or as moderated by child sex. These results evidence that parental ethnotheories are part of the developmental niche embedded in a larger cultural context. Findings on the differential links between the types of sensitivity and child emotion regulation provide cultural models of parental emotion socialization and children\'s emotional functioning.

This study evaluated the role of bidirectional micro- and macro- level positive affect-related processes in the longitudinal coupling of depressive symptoms in parent-adolescent dyads. Using a measurement-burst design, including dyadic experience sampling methods (ESM) and monthly follow-ups over one year, this work investigated associations between (1) parental depressive symptoms and anhedonia and parental daily-life enhancing and dampening responses to youth positive affect; (2) parental daily-life enhancing and dampening and trajectories of youth positive affect, negative affect, and depressive symptoms across one year; and (3) youth developmental trajectories and prospective parental daily-life enhancing and dampening, and parental depressive symptoms and anhedonia at one-year follow-up. Participants included 146 early adolescents (52.1% girls, 47.9% boys; Mage[SD] = 12.71[.86]) and 139 parents (78.7% mothers; Mage[SD] = 44.11[5.08]). Parental enhancing and dampening were measured using a dyadic ESM procedure at baseline and 12-months. Youth completed monthtly questionnaires assessing depressive symptoms and trait positive and negative affect across 12 months. Parents reported on depressive symptoms and anhedonia at baseline and 12-months. Results showed that parental anhedonia negatively related to parental daily-life enhancing, and youths\' perceptions of their parents\' enhancing and dampening reciprocally related to youth emotional development across one year, with downstream implications for parents\' own symptoms of depression.

There is a critical need for research examining how neural vulnerabilities associated with obesity, including lower executive control, interact with family factors to impact weight trajectories across adolescence. Utilizing a longitudinal design, the present study investigated caregivers\' emotion socialization practices as a moderator of the association between preschool executive control and adolescent body mass index (BMI) trajectories. Participants were 229 youth (Mage = 5.24, SD = 0.03; 47.2% assigned female at birth; 73.8% White, 3.9% Black, 0.4% Asian American, 21.8% multiracial; 12.7% Hispanic) enrolled in a longitudinal study. At preschool-age, participants completed performance-based executive control tasks, and their caregivers reported on their typical emotion-related socialization behaviors (i.e., supportive and nonsupportive responses to children\'s negative emotions). Participants returned for annual laboratory visits at ages 14 through 17, during which their height and weight were measured to calculate BMI. Although neither preschool executive control nor caregiver emotion-related socialization behaviors were directly associated with BMI growth in adolescence, supportive responses moderated the association between executive control and BMI trajectories. The expected negative association between lower preschool executive control and greater BMI growth was present at below average levels of supportive responses, suggesting that external regulation afforded by supportive responses might reduce risk for adolescent overweight and obesity among children with lower internal self-regulatory resources during preschool. Findings highlight the importance of efforts to bolster executive control early in development and targeted interventions to promote effective caregiver emotion socialization (i.e., more supportive responses) for youth with lower internal self-regulatory abilities to mitigate risk for overweight and obesity and promote health across childhood and adolescence.

Few studies have examined protective maternal factors that may mitigate the intergenerational transmission of risk of maternal emotion regulation difficulties on child outcomes. The current study tested whether supportive maternal emotion socialization moderated the association between maternal emotion regulation difficulties and child emotion regulation behaviors. Participants were 68 mother-preschooler (aged 36-60 months) dyads that were oversampled for maternal symptoms of borderline personality disorder, in order to achieve greater variability in the range of maternal emotion regulation difficulties. Maternal emotion regulation difficulties and supportive emotion socialization behaviors were measured using self-report questionnaires, and child emotion regulation was coded during a frustration-eliciting blocked goal task. Results partially supported study hypotheses, such that trait maternal emotion regulation difficulties were associated with child displays of sadness at low levels of supportive maternal emotion socialization, but not when mothers engaged in higher levels of supportive emotion socialization. These findings suggest that maternal emotion regulation and emotion socialization are distinctly related to child emotion expression and regulatory actions, and that adaptive maternal emotion socialization may mitigate some of the adverse transgenerational impacts of impaired emotion regulation.

BACKGROUND: Attachment theories suggest that the adult attachment styles of mothers may influence behavior problems among their children; however, empirical studies examining the direct role of maternal adult attachment styles and the mechanisms through emotion-related parenting are scarce.
OBJECTIVE: This study examined the influence of maternal adult attachment styles and emotion-related parenting on child internalizing and externalizing problems.
METHODS: The participants were 409 mothers with children aged 4-5 years. A questionnaire survey was conducted to obtain their adult attachment styles to their mothers, maternal emotion socialization, and their children\'s behavior problems.
RESULTS: The results of structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses revealed that maternal adult attachment influenced child behavior problems directly and indirectly through maternal emotion socialization. (1) Maternal attachment anxiety directly affected child externalizing problems, and indirectly affected them via mothers\' higher unsupportive emotion socialization (dismissing and dysfunction). Moreover, attachment anxiety influenced child internalizing problems directly, and indirectly via mothers\' higher unsupportive emotion socialization (dysfunction). (2) Furthermore, attachment avoidance indirectly impacted child externalizing problems via mothers\' lower supportive emotion socialization (coaching).
CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that maternal adult attachment styles and emotion-related parenting have important implications for the development of child behaviors. Future interventions should target parental factors to mitigate the risk of behavior problems among preschoolers.